American History

Synopses of the Crusades
The Crusades were a series of Christian military expeditions forgone by European Christians between the 11th and 14th century with the interest of reclaiming the Holy Land (Israel, especially Jerusalem) from the control of the Muslim peoples inhabiting the area. The term Crusade is inspired from a biblical verse that true Christians carry their cross and with the Latin of cross being crux, the offensive had been given an apt name. It can be said that the Crusades had been the largest military offensive at that time given that almost every major Kingdom in the European continent had sent a contingent. Moreover, funding of the operation (which has spanned three centuries) faced interested parties at the time with logistical problems which can now only be compared to the modern war against terror. Many reasons can be attributed to the beginning of the Crusades but the most imminent and lucid cause is religious in nature. At the time, Pilgrimage to the holy land was a high religious duty among Christians and the Crusaders still clung to that notion of being pilgrims. It is through pilgrimage after all that sins can be forgiven as it was declared an act of penance. The stark difference however is that the Crusaders also took the identity of warriors and as such, they waged war against who they have termed as infidels that are deemed enemies of their God. The rationale was simple the war is very much justified as it recaptures places sacred to Christians and also provides venues for the faithful to receive penance by vanquishing foes of the faith. The most sacred of places to Christians, which is Jerusalem, had been under the dominion of Muslims from the 7th Century with relative tolerance towards Christian pilgrimages. The tide began to change in the 11th Century however as Seljuk Turks suddenly began interfering with pilgrim activity and this has prompted the Papacy to take action. Evoking the idea of Jerusalem being the city which God had chosen to bless, thousands were taken into the fold as this vision of the place as Holy had to be defended by the likes of Muslims and had to be rescued from these peoples blasphemy.

Political maneuvering needs to be taken into account as well as the Byzantine Empire had been plagued by many attacks from the Seljuk Turks which prompted them to seek aid from their western neighbors. The Byzantine empire once had control of Jerusalem which they have lost to the Turks many centuries ago and the battle in which they have recently lost (in Manzikert) against their enemies has created a pan-European fear that the Turks would have more victories at their expense. Major drivers that also have to be considered include the Papacys desire to reunify East and West, western nobles craving for more land in an era of food shortage and also looking for alternative to wars waged at home. The Crusades were borne out of perceived economic gains, as the East had been reputed to hold boundless riches. Individuals who sought to join the Crusades were given an opportunity to get away from the toils and hardships of feudal life which sees younger sons with less economic leeway for success. The expansion and establishment of trade routes were also seen as a benefit in pursuing the Crusade and so they did.

The First Crusade was launched in 1096 with the encouragement of Pope Urban II. In a speech in Clermont, France, the Pope stated the urgency to eastern Christians and ends the desecration of holy places. He also highlighted the moral obligation to keep the Peace of God no matter what it took which then led to him appealing for volunteers to go to Jerusalem. In exchange was complete forgiveness of their sins without question. Overwhelming was the effect of this call and thousands took into arms for the deed. Many poor people (both in terms of money and military training) went ahead to Jerusalem under the leadership of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless even if the grand army was not assembled yet. Their motto was Deus vult which loosely translates to God wills it The offensive by this band started with the massacre of Jews along the Rhine valley. The unfortunate story about this group, however, was that it was annihilated, some along the way to the city while the remaining was massacred by the Muslims when they reached Anatolia.

The main army had a different experience altogether. With the group being a mix of French and Nordic knights and with it under the command of Nobles like Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin of Flanders, Raymond of Toulouse, Robert of Normandy and Bohemond of Taranto, they were more organized and had more experience and tutelage in military affairs. They first assembled in Constantinople then went on a long arduous march towards Anatolia. From there, they captured Antioch (July 10, 1098) and Jerusalem (July 5, 1099) after numerous costly battles. The result had been the formation of Crusader states, considerably new countries created under the control of European occupiers, its Royalty derived from the commanders of the campaign. These include the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and most importantly the Kingdom of Jerusalem where Baldwin of Flanders was crowned King. The first and the most successful crusade were however undermined due to factionalisms among the commanders and nobles that lead to the weakening of the Christian foothold on the newly acquired territories.

The next Crusade was marred with great failure as it was not as consolidated and organized as the first one. It was spurred by the Crusaders loss of Edessa to Muslims haling from Aleppo and Mosul in 1144. St. Bernard of Clairvaux also urged King Louis the VII of France and King Conrad III of Germany to take charge of the situation which resulted in them leading two separate armies that met up in Anatolia. What remained of the force from the respective Royals teamed up together and launched a siege towards Damascus that proved to be a total failure. What can only be counted as a victory in this Crusade was the capture of Lisbon, Portugal by Frisian and English soldiers on their way to the East by ship that aimed to aid the forces of Louis the VII and Conrad III.

The next Crusade was prompted by the sudden rise of a key Muslim figure in the person of Salah ad-din, known as Yusuf ibn Ayyub among his compatriots and Saladin among his enemies, who led a Muslim army and swept through most of Palestine in one feral swoop. Saladin, who founded the Ayyubid dynasty, was a very experienced warrior and leader who gained his set of skills after being exposed to the military and political affairs of the Zangid dynasty of northern Syria. His first taste of battle against the Crusaders was at Egypt in 1169. He joined his uncle Shirkuh as a staff member in the Zangid army his uncle commanded which aided the Fatimid rulers in driving away the Crusaders. The campaign was so successful that the very grateful Fatimid ruler appointed Shirkuh as vizier, a title the latter would be able to hold in only a short time of two months following his sudden death. Saladin was given the title via succession and in 1171, overthrew the Fatimid dynasty and established his dominion over the land through Islamic divine right. Three years later, the Zangid ruler Nur Al-Din perished and Saladin took this as an opportune moment for him to take control of Syria as well and launch a more collective and comprehensive Jihad against the Crusaders. In 1187, the Jihad was launched and this Muslim offensive saw Saladin victorious in Hattin and more importantly Jerusalem. As such was the case, great leaders like King Philip II of France, King Richard I of England and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I came together and launched a counter-offensive. A major drawback came in the event of Fredericks drowning en route to Anatolia via Cicilia. Other factors also weakened the Crusader effort with the recapturing of Acre the only significant victory of the campaign. Through an accord known as the Peace of Ramleh, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem was reduced to a small strip of land along the Mediterranean coast. The English however maintained control of Cyprus which still served as a resistance against the might of Saladin.

The fourth Crusade saw the active participation of the Papacy once again. Popo Innocent III urged Christians to take arms and still took the stance of a pope wanting scared places to Christians under the dominion of the faithful. The plan was grand. 10000 soldiers are to march to Palestine and take what is rightfully theirs. Funding however was a key concern and the army, composed mostly of French soldiers was divided. Some of these Crusaders ventured into Venice following a request (and pay) from Venetians to take the Christian city of Zara in Dalmatia. The force then sailed to Constantinople, which fell on April 13, 1204. The Byzantine capital was thereafter looted and Baldwin of Flanders (a different one) was made Latin Emperor. Greeks later took the city with ease in 1261.

The turn of the century was a witness to a faltering crusading effort. At the same time, measures of desperation undertaken by individuals still keen on continuing the effort. Their Muslim counterparts on the other hand enjoyed success under the command of the Ayyubid dynasty with their foothold still held firm in Palestine and Syria. With their idea of Jihad being a means to get into paradise, the Muslims never flinched and their morale was as high as it can be. As a response to this, an offensive was launched which can be surmised as the most tragic and catastrophic Christian campaign of them all. What was tagged as the Childrens Crusade of 1212 saw thousands of children perish from hunger and succumb to disease or even sold to slavery. A fifth and official Crusade was launch in 1217 against the Ayyubid dynasty directly in Egypt. In 1219, the harbor of Damettia was taken. Ultimate victory slipped from the hands of the Crusaders however as peace offers from the Muslims coupled with the unfortunate flooding of the Nile (which greatly hampered the advance of reinforcements going to Egypt as well as the main armys march towards Cairo). The sixth Crusade (1228) also ended on a mellow note due to the negotiations instigated by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. The terms included the return of pilgrimage sites like Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Lydda as well as Nazareth without any bloodshed. With the sites secured, Frederick crowned himself King of Jerusalem. The city fell to the Muslims again however in 1244.

In 1248 King Louis IX of France led a Crusade of 25000 troops against Egypt. This Crusade (the seventh) was successful in occupying Damettia. However, after being defeated by the Muslims after a few months, King Louis and his force had no choice but to go back to the city as they were not only humiliated in defeat but were forced to pay a ransom. Louis took residence in Acre for 4 years. He attempted to have an alliance with the Mongols to fight against the Muslims to no avail. He led another campaign (the eight Crusades) against the Sultan of Tunis in Africa. It was equally as unsuccessful as his first outing. Other Crusader states were lost to Sultan Baybays of the Mameluke Turks in 1268 and the last Christian stronghold of Acre fell to the same Sultan in 1291.

The 13th Century saw the diminishing value of the Crusades from a massive military campaign in other continents to being a personal offensive answerable only to the Pope that targets the papacys enemies within Europe. These crusades include campaigns against the Albigenses of Southern France, the Baltic Prussians and the Lithuanians. This kind of usage of the Crusades by the papacy pushed through up until the 15th century.

Collective Identities a Comparative Analysis
To have a wider understanding of why the Crusades were very unsuccessful on the part of the Christians, it is important to note differences that existed between the two civilizations that are key areas in which the whole war had banked on. For one thing, the Muslims were enjoying an unprecedented era of enlightenment in knowledge while the Europeans were experiencing the dark ages.  Muslim scholars have deciphered the ancient ways and systems of the fallen Roman Empire and modified these into simpler mechanisms fit for what the times called. Many new literatures sprung up on the side of the Muslims on almost every field which includes travel, physics, chemistry, biology, literary works, astronomy, mathematics and many more. The economy of the Sultanates also were very strong as they held vast territories that held riches as well as key trade routes that allowed them to trade with east Asians and Europeans. Their political structure saw the rule of the Sultan as absolute and without the interference of Caliphs and at the same time, their bureaucratic system was the most advanced at the time. Officials under the Sultanate were made accountable for their own deeds and misdeeds and this kind of Islamic honor system worked perfectly for the needed system of governance at a time where their civilization were making leaps in discoveries. The Muslims at this era were also gaining might in terms of military conquest. Their advancement in knowledge was integrated in their pre-existing military science and this aided them in gaining key victories that got them to continuously expand to the west.

On the other hand, Europeans were experiencing a dark age in the pursuit of knowledge mainly due to the threat of eternal damnation and persecution of the church when they publish their findings. Such was the power of the papacy that theories about the way the universe moved and operated had to be fully in-line with the ethos and the pathos of the Pope which greatly hampered the ontological and epistemological inquiries made at the time. Moreover, the civilization had been plagued by centuries old internal fighting, disease (of which cannot be cured due to rudimentary understanding of medicine), famine that further plunged them into darkness as priorities in military conquest beset intellectual inquiry. Due to all the fighting and the necessities posed by other crises drained the treasuries of many kingdoms and this further placed the continent into an uncertain future. In effect, even if the military capabilities of the kingdoms were as stable as they could be other areas of concern were left hanging in the air, partly due to misappropriation of funds but mainly due to their absolute belief in the Pope and his promises of salvation from indulgences and other acts of penance.

Both were defined by their respective religions but they had stark differences in integrating it in their daily lives. The Christians were driven by faith a deep belief in the Pope as a human ambassador to God to the extent that it stifled them to gain additional knowledge as it may run counter against the will of God. Muslims also have a deep belief in their faith, in fact it is considered among them not as a faith but the only way people should live. The difference is they did not see this as an impediment to discovery but rather a glorification of Allah. The expeditions they took to ancient cities and also contacts with other Asian civilizations (the Hindus for example) were greatly wrought by danger but scholars like Ibn Batuta took it upon them to undertake these endeavors for the sake of glorifying the supreme. The rationale behind this was simple when the Muslims gain new knowledge, these are to be identified with their faith and this places a spotlight on Islam. The Christians on the other hand were held down by the dogma of their church. This can be seen as a reason for the success of the Muslims at the time and the utter failure of the European Crusaders. Even if the military of the Europeans were more than adequate in terms of number, they fought against an indoctrinated war against infidelity found in the religious literature of the Muslims as well as ever improving sciences, technology and unfathomable numbers of dedicated soldiers and riches. Even if the Crusaders had its share of great leaders like Richard the Lionhearted, they still lost because the Muslim offensive is more coordinated and planned. At the end of the day, the Muslims were victorious.

The After-Effects of the Crusades
In terms of religion, the Muslims and the Christians had a more hard-line stance against one another. However, on the side of the Christians, they started to question the idea of Gods will, the power of the papacy and the validity of indulgences. This also strengthened the resolve of individuals like St. Francis of Assisi to convert Muslims into the Christian faith as well as the creation of literature that discussed the contacts of Christians with the Muslims. Knowledge once exclusively kept in the civilization of the Muslims was suddenly leaked to the Christians and this led towards enlightenment in the sciences and search for new knowledge. In terms of politics, not much had changed. The Crusaders who really held deep political clout were military orders like the Teutonic Knights, the Knights Hospitalers and most powerful and influential of them all, the Knights Templar. It is these military orders that amassed huge amounts of wealth and had the most benefits in the whole war. Such was the clout of these orders that even nobles set out to be members. The greatest impact can be seen in terms of economics however as trade routes were expanded. Banking was also introduced to the world (mainly thanks to the working of the Knights Templar) as well as new methods of taxation. Basically, what this did is open leeway for exchange in knowledge between the two great civilizations as well as the widening of the divide between the two. The next era saw the rise of the Mamluke Turks which established one of the greatest civilizations ever in the Ottoman Empire. This was just the beginning.

Proposal
The Crusades had been one of the most massive military offensives in human history that witnessed the clash of two great civilizations. It pitted European Christians and against Muslims of the East. The latter was experiencing unprecedented development and prosperity in the fields of science and military expansions. There are many literature written about the Crusades from the likes of Mayer, Hans E., The Crusades, 2nd ed., trans. by John Gilingham (1988)Riley-Smith, Jonathan, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading, (1986) Rilay-Smith, Jonathan, The Crusades A Short History (1987) Billing, Malcolm, The Cross and the Crescent, (1988) Regan, G. Saladin and the Fall of Jerusalem (1988) Lane-Poole, S. The Life of Saladin (1973) tell the story of the whole event and points to major causes and factors that have led to the beginning and the utter end of the religious-political campaign led by the papacy to recapture Holy sites in Palestine from the Muslims.

It is significant as it precedes the way and means Muslims and Westerners interact with each other especially in todays atmosphere of intolerance very much dominant in the world today. The sources provided for above show different looks and perspective even from Arabs themselves and this is key to uncovering measures in which the American legal system had been molded to response to differences in race, religion and creed. It was after all in the failure of the Crusaders that they started to question the absolute power of the Popes will as well as going out of that dogmatic framework that has long since hampered humanity in placing itself in the center. Since this event happened in the 7th up until the 13th centuries, it is quite impossible to secure primary sources for ones self as surely it will be under the care of professionals. Secondary sources are in proliferation and serves as more than enough basis for analysis and inquiry.