American History

With two perspectives on the Constitutional Convention and ratification, Robert Middlekauff and Carol Berkin each present informative points of view.  Where Middlekauffs narrative task is to set the events from 1787 through 1789 into a larger historical context, Berkin takes a more in-depth look at the characters and backdrop underlying the Convention and ratification, making notes of the delegates wardrobe and the weather.  While one narrative may be more entertaining that the other, both manage to emphasize that the people who attended the convention may have been the single most influential component of the United States founding and eventual success as a nation.

Fifty-fivemen sworn to secrecy met during the long, hot months of a Philadelphiasummer in 1787 to create the United States Constitution. The federal government at the time was merely a name, a shadow without power or effect and possessed no authority tocollect taxes, suppress rebellion, regulate trade and commerce, ordefend the nation under the Articles of Confederation.  Great fear of a strong central government, such as Englands, along with much disagreement over representation and the ineffectual nature of the Articles of Confederation led to a majorcall for reform at the September, 1786, Annapolis Convention.

The Convention was called to discuss the concept of unified trade and commerce, because, at that point, states were trading individually with no centralized regulation.  Because only five states sent delegations, there was no quorum at the Annapolis Convention, and the delegates adjourned leaving all matters unsettled.  The commissioners, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, out of desperation at the lack of progress, called for a general convention the following May, in 1787.

On February 21, 1787, shortly after Shays Rebellion, a demoralized Congress resolved
That in the opinion of Congress, it is expedient, that on the second Monday of May next, a convention of delegates, who shall have been appointed by the several states, be held at Philadelphia.

Berkin, in her more colorful narrative style, points out that the import of the moment was not lost on the future first president.  George Washington, in a letter to Madison, wrote That the present moment is pregnant of great, and strange events, none who will cast their eyes around them can deny.

Perhaps it was Washingtons letter that spurred him on, because James Madison arrived in Philadelphia on May 5, nearly ten days early and the first non-Pennsylvanian delegate.   Middlekauff begins his narrative at this point.  The Glorious Cause is more contextually constrained than A Brilliant Solution because it is but a single volume of the encyclopedic Oxford History of the United States.  Middlekauffs volume covers the entire period from 1789 through 1789 and must fit into the context of the volumes before and after his.  Having only two chapters to devote to the Constitutional Convention and its subsequent ratification, Middlekauff lacks some of the narrative luxuries Berkin is able to engage in.

Berkin, on the other hand, sets the stage for the Constitutional Convention in her introduction to the book by discussing the events that motivated her write the book  the 2000 election crisis, which was eventually decided by a conservative Supreme Court and the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in New York, Washington and over Pennsylvania.  In thus announcing her perspective, Berkin demonstrated the insight of the founding fathers in creating an enduring document on which a stalwart, resilient and dominant nation was founded.  But even before Madison arrives in Philadelphia, Berkin brings the reader up to date on the challenges facing the delegates at the Constitutional Convention, as noted above.  Berkins narrative catches up with Middlekauffs in the middle of Chapter Two.

The appointed start date of the convention, May 14, passes with little notice and no quorum (see Middlekauff, 1982, p. 623).  George Washington and  Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia, arrive ten days after Madison, andthe Virginia delegation is fully present by May 17, representing a majority of delegates beforemost states had even shown up. A quorum would not be present until May 25, when more than the seven states needed were, at last, represented.

Emphasizing the impact that Madisons early arrival had in framing the Constitution, the Virginia delegation worked during the eight day delay between their arrival and the start of the convention, crafting fifteen resolutions primarily attributed to Madison. Much of the subject matter of the Virginia delegations resolution was focused on convincing smaller states to give up their equality in Congress, instead favoring a proportional vote.   The Virginia Plan, as the resolutions are known, called for a bicameral Congress, whose membership was proportionately based either on a states non-slave population or the taxes paid per state. The Virginia delegations  head start with resolutions and a unified plan afforded them the opportunity to take steer the direction of the Convention when it began.

In contrast to Middlekauffs straightforward narrative of the events, Berkin invites three-dimensional detail into her descriptions.  On Friday, May 25, when the delegates met in the statehouse where the Convention would take place, the day had dawned gray and overcast, and rain was already falling as they entered the neat two-story statehouse, better known as Independence Hall.  Middlekauff , on the other hand, notes that on May 25, seven states were represented and the convention opened.

Berkins details breathe a little more life into the characters and settings, enabling readers to experience the Convention in a way different from merely absorbing  the salient facts.  In reading Middlekauffs depiction, one understands that the Convention takes place in summer.  From Berkins descriptions, however, we better understand the moods and discomforts of the delegates
the windows were shut tight to keep the insects out, and the blinds were drawn to protect the proceedings from prying eyes.  The dim light and the sweltering heat did little to foster the delegates appreciation for their elegant surroundings.  As they took their seats around the small, sturdy tables that had been provided for them, the northerners were already wilting in their wool suits.  Southern delegates, wiser in the ways of surviving the heat, remained crisper in their linen.

Imagine the focus of Madison and his Virginia delegation on that first day, comfortable in their linen, prepared with the Virginia Plan, as the New York and Massachusetts delegation are hardly able to concentrate in the suffocating room.  Berkins descriptions lend credibility and a dimensionality to the events, which Middlekauffs do not.  How long could the northern delegations hold out against the cooler, determined Madison under such conditions  Such glimpses help to inform the readers understanding of the events and how they transpired.

George Washington was unanimously elected to preside, and though he was to remain impartial, though it was widely known that his allegiances lay with the Virginia delegation.His mere attendance was indicative of his influence, and his presence legitimized the meeting for the other attendees. Madison maintained the most comprehensive record of the proceedings, despite the fact that he was not secretary.

It took nearly four months to hammer out the details of the Constitution. According to Berkin, the delegates just assumed the representative, legislative branch, would wield the most governmental power.  Despite his early jump on the competition, Madisons Virginia Plan was voted down, replaced by the Connecticut Compromise, which accorded equal representation to all states in the Senate. Controversy emerged, however, when discussions of the executive branch began, due to the executives resemblance to a monarchy.

Concerned that even Congress, may become too powerful, the delegates began to craft the system of checks and balances we know today. The executive retained veto power and could deploy troops, but Congress balanced the executive with the impeachment power and the power to declare war.

Compared with Middlekauff, Berkin really brought out the personalities of  the Convention members.  Comparing Thomas Jefferson, who had referred to the delegates as demi-gods in a moment of reckless exaggeration,  to John Adams more humble  assessment of them as men of Ability, Weight and Experience, one can see the egos at play in Independence Hall, something that does not come through in Middlekauffs narrative.  The quotations used by Berkin, generally unseen in Middlekauffs work, further illuminate the delegates mindsets.  Edmund Randolph of Virginia calls a single executive the foetus of monarchy, to which James Wilson responds it is the best safeguard against tyranny.  In debating whether the election of the president should be by the legislative branch,Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania states,

If the legislature elect it will be the workof intrigue, of cabal, and of faction it will be like the election of a pope by a conclave ofcardinals real merit will rarely be the title to the appointment.

From Berkins descriptions, it is clear that the delegates were aware of the weight and potential consequences of their decisions, and the strive to create a government free of  intrigue,cabal, and faction. Compared with Middlekauffs language, we as readers are more engaged and able to discern the feelings of the delegates.

The debates were so intertwined with the personalities of the delegates, that Berkins account really brings them to life.  Could the Articles of Confederation really be revised, rewritten or replaced by the Constitutional Convention After Edmund Randolph proposes the fifteen resolutions, which called for the Articles to be corrected and enlarged, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, in an arrow aimed straight at the heart of Virginias rebel leadership,questions the right of the convention to make great inroads on the existing system.  Yet despite the fervor with which the issues were debated, the Convention maintained decorum through rules of order, including whilst a member shall be speakingNone shall pass between them, or hold discourse with another, or read a book, pamphlet or paper, printed or manuscript.

Berkin further illustrated the fact that the delegates, who were crafting a representative government, represented the social elite  lawyers, merchants, and large landowners.  The make-up of the convention was rather amorphous, never the same for any given vote.  Delegates would leave due to disagreements, business and family obligations. At any phase of the convention, the particular mix of delegates did impact the voting on proposals, yet there were some constants  according to Berkin,  Roger Sherman, James Madison, James Wilson, and Gouverneur Morris as the most frequent speakers at the convention, with Morris taking the floor some 173 times. Morris actually drafted the final version of the Constitution, as well as the Preamble.

Berkin also brings out other details we dont see in the Middlekauff narrative.  She compares the clothes of President elect Washington in his brown suit and Vice President electAdams in his more elaborate formal attire.   Unlikethe president-elect, the short, chunky Adams had shown a preference for splendor oversimplicity in selecting his inauguration-day suit.

Both Middlekauff  and Berkin achieve their goals of presenting concise narrative histories of the Constitutional convention and ratification.  If a reader needed the important facts and events and to understand the Constitutional struggles of 1787-89 and their place in the context of American history, Middlekauffs The Glorious Cause is a straightforward narrative from a respected historian that will get the job done.  Berkins A Brilliant Solution, on the other hand, brings the reader into the Convention, allowing us to witness the full personalities of the delegates, the setting, and the debates.  Such a perspective makes the experience more personal for the reader, and can add an extra dimension to our understanding of how the foundation of our society was built.