American History

Executive Summary
Henry Lewis Stimson was a central figure in the public life of the United States from the time of his role as a United States Federal Attorney in New York in 1906 until his retirement as United States Secretary of War in 1945. Born into a privileged family in New York in 1867, Stimson was educated at Andover, Yale and Harvard.  Stimson began his professional career as a lawyer in private practice, befriending Elihu Root and President Theodore Roosevelt. Stimson was appointed United States Federal Attorney in New York in 1906, a role in which he pursued enforcement of regulation of corporations. Stimson made a failed run for Governor in New York in 1910 under the tutelage of President Theodore Roosevelt. Stimson was appointed Secretary of War in President Tafts cabinet in 1911. He pursued a program of modernization of the United States armed forces in preparation for World War One. Stimson then served briefly in France during World War One. Stimson was sent to Nicaragua by President Coolidge in 1927 to negotiate a peace in the civil conflict. Later in 1927 he was sent to the Philippines as Governor. Stimson became Secretary of State in the Hoover Administration in 1929. He attempted to engage Imperial Japan through multilateral diplomacy. Stimson advocated a policy of non recognition of Japanese annexation of Manchuria in 1931, a policy which came to be known as the Stimson Doctrine. President Franklin Roosevelt appointed Stimson Secretary of War in 1941 in order to create bi-partisan support for United States involvement in World War Two. Stimson oversaw the Manhattan Project to create a nuclear bomb. Stimson then recommended the use of the bomb on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki which hastened the end of the conflict. Stimson retired from public life in 1945 at the end of World War Two.

Family Background and Education
Henry Lewis Stimson was born on September 21 1867 in New York City. Stimsons ancestors had fought in every American conflict stretching back to King Phillips War in 1675. His father Lewis Atterbury Stimson acquired wealth initially as a banker, after which he pursued a career in medicine. Henry Stimsons uncle Reverend Henry Albert Stimson taught him the gospel of social reform which would influence his later social and political outlook.  Stimson graduated from Philips Academy Andover in 1884 and from Yale College in 1888. He then graduated from Harvard Law School and was admitted to the New York Bar in 1891. Stimson was married in 1893 to Mabel Wellington White, they had no children.

Early Career
Stimson started his career as a clerk in the firm Root and Clarke and after two years was made a member of the firm. It was at this time that he met Elihu Root who was to become a mentor and political patron. When Root left legal practice to become Secretary of War in President McKinleys Cabinet in 1899, a new firm of Winthrop and Stimson was formed in 1901 specializing in corporation law. Stimson invested wisely in the stock market and became a wealthy man. Fond of the great outdoors, Stimson purchased a farm at Cold Spring Harbor.

A famous anecdote demonstrates the bond shared between Stimson and President Theodore Roosevelt. In January 1902 Stimson was riding his horse near Rock Creek Park when he heard the President calling him from the other side of the creek. The President along with Elihu Root wanted Stimson to cross the raging river to join his party. Stimson initially hesitated however President Theodore Roosevelt ordered Stimson in military fashion, after which Stimson showed great fortitude in crossing the river, saying that he could not possibly disobey military orders. President Theodore Roosevelt began to call Stimson Young Lochivar. Roosevelt then appointed Stimson Federal Attorney for New York District in January 1906. Stimsons term as Federal Attorney included the successful prosecution of the New York Herald for printing indecent advertisements, the conviction of the notorious financer Charles W. Morse, as well as the prosecution of the New York Central Rail Road Company for illicit rebating.  Stimson played a pioneering role in enforcing Federal regulation and promoting the concept of the public interest in the emerging American corporate system.

Election Defeat in New York 1910
Stimson was President Theodore Roosevelts candidate in the gubernatorial election in New York in 1910. Whilst Roosevelt himself remained the central figure in the election, Stimson ran a competent campaign based on an anti-corruption platform. However due to a schism in the Republican Party, many Republicans refused to vote for Stimson who they viewed as Roosevelts candidate. Furthermore the gubernatorial election was seen as a test of strength for Roosevelt, which he lost convincingly. Stimsons brief entry into electoral politics ended in defeat.

Secretary of War, World War One
Defeated in the 1910 New York gubernatorial election, Stimson entered President Tafts Cabinet as Secretary of War on May 22, 1911. Stimson continued the work of his predecessor and mentor Elihu Root, restructuring the Army in preparation for rapid expansion prior to World War One. Stimson ended the isolation of the privileged staff corps which brought him into conflict with conservative elements within the Army. Stimson demitted office upon the election of President Woodrow Wilson. Stimson served in the military in World War One. At the age of nearly 50, in 1917, Stimson became second in command of the 305th Field Artillery Regiment, 77th division with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.

Civil Negotiations in Nicaragua
In 1927 President Calvin Coolidge sent Stimson to Nicaragua for negotiations to end the civil war. Stimson began the process of mediation, meeting with leaders from across the political spectrum. His talks with President Diaz, and the rebel leader General Jose Maria Mocada led to an agreement between both sides to disarm. This agreement came to be known as the Pact of Espino Negro. United States forces supervised the elections of 1928, took over Nicaraguas military functions and bolstered the Nicaraguan National Guard. During his tenure Stimson laid the foundations for what become known as the Good Neighbor Policy of the United States toward Latin American countries.

Governor General of the Philippines
Later the same year Stimson was appointed Governor General of the Philippines, an office he held until 1929. During his tenure, Stimson pursued a four step program to enhance self government. Stimson passed the Belo Act which gave him money for his advisers, he then appointed a party cabinet and amended the rules of procedure for both houses giving cabinet ministers privilege of the floor, he then created the Council of State. Stimsons economic vision was for the corporatization of the Philippines economy, and he opposed the curtailment of the free trade regime between the two countries. Stimson made efforts to curb pork barrel spending, advocating fiscal oversight by the administration over the government. Stimson took measures for the economic development of Mindanao, whilst attempting to build union between Moros and Christians.

The Stimson Doctrine
President Hoover appointed Stimson as Secretary of State in 1929. During his term Stimson was the Chairman of the United States delegation to the London Naval Conference in 1930 and 1931. Stimson was also Chairman of the United States delegation to the Geneva Disarmament Convention in 1932. However most importantly it was at this point that Stimson encountered an imperialist Japan which was embarking upon a program of territorial expansion, a foe whom Stimson would spend the remainder of his career dealing with. Stimson sought to deny international recognition of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. The principle that treaties signed under duress after the use of military force would not be recognized in international law by the world community came to be known as the Stimson Doctrine. The Stimson Doctrine sought to prevent internationally illegal action from conferring any legal advantages by withholding recognition, which amounts to support to the aggressor.  US non recognition of Japanese aggression in Manchuria essentially prevented a de facto situation from becoming de jure, denying validity in international law.

Initially US policy was restrained, aimed at bolstering moderates rather than militants within the Japanese establishment, in the hope of encouraging a Japanese retreat. After confirmation of the Japanese aggression in Manchuria, Stimson sought to use an internationalist response to isolate Japan diplomatically upon the basis of the Kellogg Pact to which the United States was a signatory. Stimson also consulted with the League of Nations to exert pressure on the Japanese. Stimson initially looked upon the non recognition doctrine as a means to resolve the dispute with Japan and not as a prelude to military conflict. However as the Japanese persisted in military aggression, Stimson advocated a joint naval deployment with England to exert military pressure on the Japanese. Stimson essentially sought to bluff the Japanese into a cessation of hostilities, rather than actually considering the use of the US Navy in a military conflict. Japan did retreat, however they installed a puppet government in Manchuria.

Stimson began to ponder upon the likelihood of war between the United States and Japan. The options of an economic boycott of Japan and further deployment of the US Navy in the Pacific began to be discussed. Upon the election of President Franklin Roosevelt in 1932 Stimsons involvement in the Manchurian Crisis and the impending conflict with Japan came to a pause. Stimson demitted public office however continued writing on foreign affairs consistently opposing Japanese aggression in Asia and the Pacific. In 1938, Stimson became Honorary Chairman of the American Committee for Non-Participation in Japanese Aggression.

World War Two and the Atomic Bomb
The policies pursued by Stimson during his tenure as Secretary of State under President Hoover in the early 1930s seemed largely unsuccessful by the late 1930s. Japan had continued expanding militarily across Asia and the Pacific, despite the Stimson Doctrine, economic boycott and the bluff of US military intervention. With a large scale military conflict with Japan looming, in June 1940 President Franklin Roosevelt appointed Stimson to a second term as Secretary of War. President Roosevelt sought to use Stimsons stature within the Republican Party to boost support for the war effort. Stimsons opinion on the inevitability of conflict with the Japanese had evolved since his stint as Secretary of State under President Hoover.

Stimsons perceived of the likelihood of American involvement in the European Theatre. This lead to his support for Britain economically and militarily against Nazi Germany. Stimson testified before Congress on behalf of the Lend Lease Bill which he viewed as an economic declaration of war by the United States upon Hitlers Germany.

Stimson was now convinced of the imminence of war with the Japanese, and began to focus upon the best way, morally and militarily to enter the war. Stimson promoted the first peace time draft to prepare the United States Army for large scale conflict. However Stimsons preoccupation was the creation of favorable opinion amongst the American public for war with the Japanese. Stimson actively contrived to make Japan the aggressor, provoking an attack to which the United States would have to respond to in the name of self-defense. Stimson wrote of how he could maneuver the Japanese into firing the first shot.  As such Stimson faced criticism for having sacrificed the lives of those who died in the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor simply so that the United States could claim the moral high ground in the ensuing conflict and offer an easy explanation for war to the American public which would rally opinion behind the war effort.  However such criticism may be tempered by the fact that it was ambiguous as to the exact nature of such a maneuver. It is almost certain that Stimson did not envisage an attack upon Pearl Harbor among possible scenarios of a Japanese attack.

Stimson controversially recommended the internment of 100 000 Japanese-Americans whom he deemed to be potential traitors. His decision was based upon what he called a military necessity, whilst recognizing that such a decision would damage the principles of the United States Constitution.

Stimson faced further moral dilemmas in terminating the war against the Japanese. The means to most efficiently end the war in the Pacific were being debated in Washington. Stimson had been in charge of the program to develop an atomic bomb, directly supervising the head of the Manhattan Project, General Leslie Groves. It was Stimsons record of service and integrity which allowed Congress to fund a project which they knew little about.  Much of the dilemma surrounding the potential use of the atomic bomb revolved around the uncertainty of the Japanese military response in the event of a conventional United States invasion of Japan. Much uncertainty existed as to whether the Japanese would fight until the very end or how easily they would surrender. The estimated number of casualties from such fighting, and the possibility of cutting off the supply of food to the Japanese population and its effect was also unclear. An elaborate cost-benefit analysis of using the atomic bomb was constantly being conducted in Washington. Furthermore the impact that the use of the atomic bomb would have upon the post war international scenario was considered. It was thought that a show of United States nuclear force would act as a deterrent to Soviet Russia, bringing them into a potential nuclear alliance or agreement. However Stimsons priorities were to end the war and secure control of international atomic energy.  On August 6 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped on the Japanese City Hiroshima. On August 9 1945 Nagasaki was similarly attacked by United States forces.  Stimson insisted that Kyoto be removed from the bombing campaign on account of its cultural and religious significance.

Stimson later provided context and justification for his actions. Stimson clarified that the initial imperative for nuclear research was to beat the Germans in the race to produce a nuclear weapon and thus reduce the length of the war.  Whilst the fruits of the Manhattan project came too late for use in the European Theatre, the bomb was utilized in the Pacific Theatre. Stimson felt that the Japanese with a combined strength of five million men were capable of fighting to the end, which may inflict over one million American casualties.   An overwhelming demonstration of American military superiority would appeal to the more liberal non militaristic sections of the Japanese establishment to surrender. It would also avoid the devastation of the Japanese economy that a prolonged invasion would produce. Stimson did attempt to avoid a nuclear attack by giving the Japanese a warning which came to be known as the Potsdam Declaration. Stimson felt that the Japanese surrender and the relatively smooth nature of the United States occupation of Japan validated his decision to deploy nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Stimson opposed the Morganthau Plan to de-industrialize and break up Germany into smaller states. Stimson understood the dependence of smaller economies in Europe upon the German industrial powerhouse for post war economic recovery. Stimson recognized the inherent abundance of natural and human resources which the German economy possessed, and did not wish for the German people to become permanently impoverished and direct their anger toward the United States and its allies rather than the Nazi regime which had directed them to such a disaster.

Stimson sought rigorous judicial processes to try Nazis for war crimes after World War Two.  Stimson in conjunction with the United States Department of War drafted the initial proposals for the International Tribunal which lead to later developments in international law such as the Nuremburg Trials in 1945 and 1946.  Upon the end of World War Two, in September 1945 Stimson retired from active public life.

Career Summary
Henry Stimson made a great contribution to American public life in the first half of the 20th century.  Starting as a Federal Attorney in New York in 1906, he pursued what he saw as the public interest by prosecuting cases of fraud and corruption amongst corporations. Stimson then served as Secretary of War in President Tafts cabinet, overseeing the preparation of the armed forces for World War One, a war he would then personally serve in. Stimson was then sent by President Hoover to negotiate a settlement in Nicaragua in 1927, and then to serve American interests in the Philippines as Governor. The latter part of his career in the 1930s and 1940s was mainly spent dealing with the threat posed by Imperial Japan. His first efforts at multilateral diplomacy produced a policy of non recognition of the Japanese incursion into Manchuria, which came to be called the Stimson Doctrine. However in the face of an increasingly belligerent Japan, Stimson shifted his thinking toward the inevitability of military conflict. It is ironic that the man who placed so much emphasis on internationalism and multilateral diplomacy ended his career on an infamous note, recommending the dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Stimsons lasting legacy will be his role in the Manhattan Project which heralded the nuclear age which has since defined American power and international relations.