American History

The Bay of Pigs invasion was the unsuccessful attempt by Cuban exiles, backed covertly by the United States government to overthrow the Fidel Castro whose forces took over the island nation during the 1959 Revolution which saw the overthrow of the authoritarian regime of Fulgencio Battista. The Cuban exiles who participated in the invasion had been trained by the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). In 1960, American President Dwight D.  Eisenhower initiated the termination of US diplomatic relations with Cuba due to the increasing hostility between the two nations. The US government opposed Castro s dictatorship regime plus the fact he installed a socialist (communist) regime there and as such the US could not tolerate a communist regime in their backyard (at the height of the Cold War) considering Cuba is roughly 90 miles from the American mainland.

Following the  domino theory,  Political analysts back then were concerned that Cuba would be a springboard to promote Marxist revolutionary fervor throughout the western hemisphere hence it was considered important to aid Cuban anti-revolutionary guerrillas to overthrow Castro s regime in (ironically) the same manner he came to power.  The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), acting on directives from the White House, was tasked in the formation of the Cuban Revolutionary Council and training Cuban exiles to liberate Cuba. Eisenhower s successor, John F. Kennedy approved the invasion plan.  These US-trained exiles landed in what is called the Playa Giron to begin what would be an attempt to overthrow Castro s government. The invasion was discovered and after three days of fighting, the anti-Castro forces were defeated by Castros forces who were well-armed and well-equipped.  The debacle of what became known as the Bay of Pigs invasion made an impact of the newly-installed Kennedy Administration.  The embarrassment it caused made it hesitant or unwilling to mount another operation to unseat Castro.  This hesitation enabled Castro to solidify his position as Cubas  Maximum Leader  and strengthen his ties with the Soviet Union, his chief patron which would run up to the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.

Various historians have presented their views about the invasion. For instance, historian Piero Gleijesses attributes the failure of the invasion to misunderstanding within CIA which undermined good planning of the invasion and led to a communication breakdown within the White House .Jack Pfeiffer who was a historian working with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)  considered the CIA incompetence to have contributed to the failure. Hersh (1997) points out that Arthur Schlesinger argues that though President Kennedy had doubts about the feasibility on the invasion, he did not want to look weak, indecisive and tolerant to communism by canceling the invasion. The attempted invasion completely changed relations between of the US and Cuba as well as Kennedy s administration approach towards Cuba.  This paper provides an analysis on the extent to which US failure during the Bay of Pigs changed Kennedy s administration approach to Cuba.

Discussion
Paterson (1989) confirms that the relations between the United States and Cuba were hostile even before the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961.  America s opposition to Castro s communist government can be attributed to the US anti-communism and Cold war containment foreign policy that was adopted by the Eisenhower administration. On the other hand, Fidel Castro criticized the US interference in Latin America matters and strong opposition against communism.  Castro s administration triggered US hostility by putting into place policies that had negative impact on American companies in Cuba, aligning itself with the Soviet Union and supporting the Marxist   Leninist ideology. The failure of the US during the Bay of Pig was an embarrassment to Kennedy administration and Kennedy who had portrayed himself as a defender of democracy and freedom had his image damaged for interfering with internal matters of a sovereign nation. The State Department Document (State Department Documents. Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, Memoranda 255) confirms that after the failed invasion attempt, the US initiated negotiations with Castro s administration to have the Brigade prisoners who had been arrested freed.

The political implications of the invasion shaped the US foreign policy in Latin America. For example, the US efforts to have Cubans oppose Castro s leadership were undermined by his increased popularity in the country due to the support he received from citizens who had suffered previously from repressive regimes, particularly from Battista. In addition, the Bay of Pigs invasion resulted to the integration of nationalistic elements in the policies and increased anti-American views in Cuba.  Castro took advantage of this to drum up more support for him and thereby solidify his hold on power as he added a nationalistic undertone in his speeches condemning the invasion and in effect, the US.  The US approach towards Cuba remained hostile and its efforts to overthrow Castro s administration led to the launch of Operation Mongoose, a plan to destabilize and sabotage the Cuban economy and government.

Due to the deterioration of relations between the Kennedy administrations with Cuba, anti-communism foreign policy of the US had the government support the Operation Mongoose. Dallek (Dallek, 2003) asserts that the need to protect the US interests and reduce Communism influence had fuelled Kennedy s administration criticism of Cuba .The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion had   military strengthening and monitoring measures to counter communism insurgence and socialist regimes put into place by the Kennedy administration. For example, the creation of the Operation Mongoose program in November 1961 was aimed at undermining Castro s administration after the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. The Cuba document (Cuba, 1961-1962) confirms that a US policy assessment that was initiated in May 1961 led to the adoption and implementation of the program by the US government (Cuba, 1961-1962 report).It was a covert program meant to overthrow and undermine Castro s leadership in Cuba.

Kennedy approved the plan and appointed CIA counterinsurgency specialist Edward Lansdale to coordinate operations within the program. The activities undertaken under the program included sabotage operations and collection of intelligence about Castro s administration .Robert Kennedy and Maxwell Taylor had vital roles in the program. The US government subjected Cuba to propaganda programs to discredit Castro s leadership and economic isolation. The US also supported anti-Castro guerrilla raids which Castro s administration believed to be instigated by the US government. The US government hoped that after Castro s government was overthrown, the US would help to institute a new government in Cuba. Kennedy s administration opposed communist control in Cuba and the Communist formula used by Castro in his leadership. The continued hostility of the Kennedy administration towards Castro s administration made Castro seek assistance from the Soviet Union. The assistance was meant to prepare Cuba for the possibility of a US large scale attack against Cuba in future. It was while the Kennedy administration implemented the Operation Mongoose when the Soviet Union began constructing missile site in Cuba, an issue that led to the Cuban Missile Crisis. A suspension of mongoose activities became necessary after the 1961 discovery of Soviet missiles in Cuba.

Castro s conviction that the US would launch further attacks against Cuba had him approve the establishment of Soviet missile construction sites in Cuba. However, the discovery of the sites by the US in 1962 triggered the Cuban Missile crisis .The US President, John Kennedy convened an Ex-Comm (Executive Committee of the National Security Council) meeting in order to address the crisis.  This led to intense and guarded debate within the government to explore the most effective way of having the Soviet remove its missiles from Cuba. After exploring different ways of addressing the crisis, Kennedy imposed a naval quarantine against Soviet Union in Cuba to prevent arrival of more Soviet offensive weapons.  . It was clear that the Soviet influence and missiles in Cuba were a security threat to the US because a nuclear missile launch against the US by the Soviet would have had detrimental effects. Kennedy administration demanded that the offensive weapons of the Soviets be removed from Cuba.  Although the crisis had threatened to trigger a nuclear war, negotiations between the two averted the war when the Soviet agreed to have its missile installations in Cuba dismantled while the US gave an assurance not to invade Cuba.

Kennedy s administration failure to launch an air strike against Soviet missile sites in Cuba was opposed by some government officials hence Kennedy decided to use diplomacy to have the Soviet Union remove its missiles from Cuba without triggering military confrontation or a nuclear war. Kennedy therefore supported the naval quarantine measure that was recommended by the ExComm. Trachtenberg (Trachtenberg, 1985) asserts that the ExComm committee was actively involved in addressing the crisis hence was comprised of individuals who had reliable information about the undertakings of the US government during the crisis. The committee had the responsibility to advise the Kennedy administration on the alternative ways of solving the crisis. The Soviet preference to solve the crisis peacefully and Castro s agreement to have Soviet missile sites closed prevented military confrontation and eliminated the possibility of a nuclear war. Giglio (Giglio, 2006) states that during the crisis, there were some principle pressures and constraints that acted on Kennedy. James (James, 1990) states that one issue that put him under pressure was the proposal by his advisors to initiate immediate military air strikes against Cuba. The State Department Document (State Department Documents. Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, Memoranda 76) states that the US interpreted the Khrushchev actions to be a means of gaining flexibility and time as well as delaying tactics to avoid military confrontation with the US. According to Sorenson (Sorenson, 1999), the aversion of global nuclear war in 1961 can be attributed by the intentions of the US and Soviet to solve the crisis peacefully as well as hinder grave consequences of such action on both nations.

The Kennedy administration after the missile crisis did not renounce its policy of having Castro s government overthrown .The US government foreign policy towards Latin America opposed the presence and spread of communism influence in the region. Rabe (Rabe, 2000) states that the US government continued to adopt various measures to counter Castro s leadership and communist influence in Cuba .For example, the US government policy in the region supported breaking off of diplomatic relations between other Latin American and Cuba. The relations between the two the US and Cuba were characterized by political grand standing, arguments, international crisis and  war of liberation . This situation was made worse when the US imposed a trade embargo on Cuba in 1962. As a result, the Kennedy administration opposition against Castro s administration took a different turn from military confrontation and sabotage to an economic warfare.  Although the proponents of the embargo considered it to be an effective means of squeezing Castro out of power, those who opposed the move anticipated that it would lead to more anti-American hostility and undermine economic progress in Cuba.  The US through the embargo broke off all financial and trade transactions with Cuba, an issue that greatly affected the Cuban economy.  The Kennedy administration efforts to have Castro leadership ended led to the CIA involvement in sabotage operations. From June 1963, the Kennedy administration intensified war against Cuba. The CIA integrated program of sabotage, propaganda and economic denial was implemented.

There Kennedy administration was able to assume a determined and tough stand against Cuba because of Castro s communism ideology as one way of ensuring that the national interests were protected. According to Paterson (Paterson, 1962), the Kennedy administration hostile approach towards Cuba can be attributed to the conviction that both Cuba and Soviet Union were a security threat to the United States. The administration began showing more concern for issues of peace and war. Schlesinger (Schlesinger, 1965) states that Kennedy s foreign policy aimed at countering communist influence in Cuba which was considered to be a communist menace that undermined the rights of citizens to participate in free elections and acted as a base through which communism was infiltrating  into Latin America. For example, Kennedy administration emphasized on the need of freeing the Cuban people from Castro s leadership. As a result, Kennedy commitment to overthrow Castro and stop the spread of communism continued to affect the US relations with Cuba. However, the US government support for democracy in Latin American especially in Cuba was questioned after he launched the Alliance for Progress Plan. The plan was meant to support social reforms in Latin America but criticism of the plan can be attributed to the US military aid to revolutionaries and to the right-wing dictators in the region who intended to remain in power.

The United States adopted foreign policies of containment and deterrence in the 1940s to counter the threat of communism influenced US policy towards Cuba. These policies were a component of the Cold War meant to stop the expansion of communist influence hence they remained critical for Kennedy administration. The pro-communist policies and anti-American approach taken by Castro s administration were seen to be a security threat to America and a base for the making of a new Soviet satellite in the region. The State Department Documents (State Department Documents. Cuba 1961-1962(Memorandum series 176 and 226) confirms that the US government acknowledged the threat of communism insurgence in various parts of the world hence its approach towards Cuba was influenced by the containment and deterrence policies.

Economic warfare towards Cuba was important for the Kennedy administration to tighten the noose of Castro s administration and Cuba s economy. The US policy towards Cuba led to economic sanctions and restrictions on Americans to travel to Cuba.  This led to limited political, commercial and civilian relations between Cuba and US. For example, Kennedy s administration initiative to have trade embargo imposed on Cuba made good commercial relations between the US and Cuba impossible to achieve.  By February 1963, many Americans could not travel to Cuba. Although Kennedy administration policy towards Cuba was meant to pressure Castro s government to embrace democracy, the embargo failed to achieve the objectives set by Kennedy administration. Instead, the embargo damaged US diplomatic, economic and national security interests. Political analysts have argued that  in order to promote democratic systems and halt the spread of communism in Latin America, the Kennedy administration should have focused also on  supporting  political systems where freedom flourish.

The Kennedy administration continued to support efforts that aimed at eliminating Castro s administration. Since Kennedy   and his advisers were members of the  containment generation , their tough stand against communism increased tensions with Cuba. They were convinced that communism leads to poverty and economic dislocation hence had to be contained through global scale counterforce. The Kennedy s administration foreign policy was a mixture of traditional anti-communist convictions and sincere idealism. Views that communism inspired civil wars and revolutions had the administration oppose Castro s communist government. The American government even made efforts to urge Latin American nations to break diplomatic relations with Cuba and to resist the influence of communist nations such as the Soviet Union. This is considered to be the major reason why the Kennedy administration was bothered about the growing relations between Cuba and Soviet Union.

The 1961-1963 Kennedy administration policy towards Cuba was characterized by ideological antagonism, covert actions and opposition against Castro s leadership.Chang (Chang, 1988) supports the argument that the US hostility towards communism was also directed towards Communist China. For instance, the Eisenhower s policy towards China encouraged its isolation and prevention of communist influence in Asia. Chang (Chang, 1988) points out that apart from the Soviet Union, Kennedy s administration anti-communism efforts and policy aimed at countering China s communism. The Kennedy administration considered containment and isolation policy that was supported by Eisenhower necessary to stop the communist influence of Castro s administration. For example, the US administration supported raids carried out by Cuban exiles against the Castro s government.

Conclusion
Kennedy s administration foreign policy supported US Cold War policies which was to contain the spread and influence of communism played a major role in encouraging the invasion of Cuba during the Bay of Pigs. In the case of Cuba, However, the failure of the  Kennedy s administration to oust Castro affected America s approach towards Cuba and other communist nations. Hostile relations between the US and Cuba threatened to trigger a nuclear war between the US and the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis and although the crisis was solved peacefully through negotiations, the reality of a nuclear war was made evident by the crisis. Although the US claimed a moral victory in this showdown with the Soviets, it paid a price of compromise as it made a promise not to invade Cuba in its dealings with Moscow which had somewhat upset Castro.  If it is any consolation on the part of the United States, they continue to keep their naval base at Guantanamo which is still there to this very day and was a sore spot on the side of Castro despite his revolutionary zeal.  On the other hand, some analysts argue that although the US conviction on the threat of communism is justified, exaggeration of the threat contributed greatly to Kennedy s administration numerous confrontations and crisis with other nations.