American History

Why are We Here
The ongoing war in Afghanistan, dubbed Operation Enduring Freedom, in military circles, is waged by the United States and its allies against Al-Qaeda and their Taliban allies in response to the terrorist attacks on American soil on September 11, 2001.  Like the last two world wars, America has once again responded to an attack against its people by forces who wish ill for it.  In justifying the reason for being there, one needs to remember what President George W. Bush said in his speech in a joint session of Congresss on September 20, 2001, nine days following the terrorist attacks.  He has identified who attacked the United States

Americans have many questions tonight. Americans are asking, Who attacked our country The evidence we have gathered all points to a collection of loosely affiliated terrorist organizations known as al Qaeda....Al Qaeda is to terror what the Mafia is to crime...its goal is remaking the world and imposing its radical beliefs on people everywhere...The terrorists directive commands them to kill Christians and Jews, to kill all Americans and make no distinctions among military and civilians, including women and children.

After identifying the perpetrators of the attack, President Bush set the tone for providing justification on why this attack happened
Americans are asking Why do they hate us They hate our freedoms our freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom to vote and assemble and disagree with each other...These terrorists kill not merely to end lives, but to disrupt and end a way of life. With every atrocity, they hope that America grows fearful, retreating from the world and forsaking our friends. They stand against us because we stand in their way.

What President Bush was pointing out was that terrorism was the new threat the world is currently facing to this day.  What makes it more dangerous and difficult is that the enemies are non-state actors.  They do not represent a particular nation yet can live anywhere in the world, whether invited by nations like Afghanistan, or illegally like in Pakistan where they are based in its most remote and harshest regions where the government cannot touch them.  Bush also made mention of the Taliban in his address.  Afghanistan back then was ruled by the Taliban who imposed their very orthodox, if not extremist brand of Islam and is recognized by Al-Qaeda as their friend and in return for this acknowledgment, provded the latter with a  home  as Afghanistan also serves as one of the training grounds for terrorist groups around the world.  It was in this regard that Bush demanded that the Taliban leaders in Afghanistan cooperate by handing over the perpetrators and their sponsors to their justice.  When they refused, this provided the impetus for taking military action in Afghanistan which took place a month later.

On my orders, the United States military has begun strikes against al Qaeda terrorist training camps and military installations of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. These carefully targeted actions are designed to disrupt the use of Afghanistan as a terrorist base of operations, and to attack the military capability of the Taliban regime.

But the war in Afghanistan is not a purely military operation.    President Bush also stated the humanitarian side of Operation Enduring Freedom as well

At the same time, the oppressed people of Afghanistan will know the generosity of America and our allies. As we strike military targets, well also drop food, medicine and supplies to the starving and suffering men and women and children of Afghanistan. The United States of America is a friend to the Afghan people, and we are the friends of almost a billion worldwide who practice the Islamic faith. The United States of America is an enemy of those who aid terrorists and of the barbaric criminals who profane a great religion by committing murder in its name.

In prosecuting this war, the United States, as well as its allies, have made it clear that this is a war on terrorism, not against Islam.  With the ascension of Barack Obama to the White House, he has given this campaign a sounder moral direction as a way for America to set things right with the world after centuries of mistrust and resentment towards it after nearly two centuries of  imperialism.   This combined military and humanitarian operation in Afghanistan seeks to show the world that America has resolved to set things right, and that it is determined to win this rather unusual war like previous wars in the past.

What are the outcomes of the war bring so long
When President Bush committed America to war, he did not promise it would be a quick and decisive one like previoius wars America has fought in the past

 Now, this war will not be like the war against Iraq a decade ago, with a decisive liberation of territory and a swift conclusion. It will not look like the air war above Kosovo two years ago, where no ground troops were used and not a single American was lost in combat. Our response involves far more than instant retaliation and isolated strikes. Americans should not expect one battle, but a lengthy campaign unlike any other we have ever seen. It may include dramatic strikes visible on TV and covert operations secret even in success.

From these lines, it can be inferred that the war on terrorism will be a long protracted battle that will not be decided instantly.  No one knows exactly when it will end as the United States, through the directive of its leaders, are committed in seeing this war through to the end with only one outcome   the defeat of terrorism.  Fiscally, the war in Afghanistan has started with an expense of roughly 600 million when it began.  After nine years of fighting, the cost has now reached over 800 million.  In terms of lives lost, over 1,800 American lives, along with their coalition allies, were lost both to accidents and enemy action, especially recently.

Despite the cost in money and lives, President Bush made it clear by not promising easy victories which is for this reason he urged the American people to be patient and persevere like never before since the Second World War.  The reason for this is this is a different enemy and one way to win over it is not to give up or waver.  This is a war America cannot afford to lose as the survival of the nation is at stake.  The grievances of the enemy is something that cannot be easily satisfied through any means.  The enemy is very committed, highly motivated by their religion, and are bent on seeing to the destruction of the United States and everything it stands for, because they regard it as evil and they believe they are on a crusade to rid the world of this evil.  Therefore, quitting, not failing, is not an option for the American people, not as long as there are forces that want to see them destroyed.  It is therefore essential that they take action.  Although, military action does not guarantee total eradication of terrorism, it should send a clear message that America is not weak nor will it let terrorism get away with murdering and striking fear into the hearts of the innocents.

What will be the outcome when we finally leave
When Barack Obama assumed the presidency, he redirected the war efforts to Afghanistan as he wanted American forces to withdraw from Iraq.  He believed this is where the war should be fought, hence the need to direct all resources here.  Unlike Iraq, Afghanistan could not be abandoned or left the way it is unless it is fully rehabilitated.  To leave sooner would leave the country vulnerable to renewed attacks by the Taliban and Al-Qaeda and revert the country back to what it was before the war began.  One of the challenges America and its allies face in this troubled region is to bring about stability.  What makes it daunting is that Afghanistan is a very diverse society made up of various ethnic groups and tribal clans who are fiercely independent of one another and have never been subjugated by a single ruler.  This is the challenge facing the coalition even after it has driven the Taliban from power   to make Afghanistan a stable nation while working around its unique and unusual society.  It is quite a daunting task, yet something that needs to be done.  In this regard failure is not an option to the coalition forces.

Looking at it from a much bigger picture, so as long as there is terrorism, the world will not be safe or be at real peace.  It is therefore necessary for nations to put up security measures and implement the necessary policies to ensure the safety of its people.  Realistically, terrorism cannot be totally eradicated.  However, it can be curbed effectively if the correct strategies are applied.  As stated earlier, military force is only part of the solution but this alone will not address terrorism.  There is the need to address the root cause of terrorism which is the marginalization and neglect of the affected people, particularly those of the Middle East who have to endure poverty and the other problems it has spawned such as illiteracy or lack of education and unemployment.  Their conditions make the people ripe for the likes of Al-Qaeda and other affiliated groupd to recruit them and turn them into terrorists and conveniently blame the west for all their ills.  If the developed nations can address these problems, very likely through economic aid, they have just won part of the battle against terrorism.  The military portion should be reserved for the extremists or radicals whose grievances cannot be addressed by economic aid since the only thing that will satisfy them is the downfall of the west.

If the United States, in particular, can do this, it would have reestablished itself as a great power in the world, as well as reaffirm its image as the bringer of stability in the world, apart from being the liberator of the oppressed and conqueror of tyranny wherever it may be found in the world.  Despite the cost in money and lives, the war on terror is a just one though nobody wants a war, this is a war that must be fought because the survival of civilization depends on it as their enemy is not merely content in defeating the west, but also in wanting to impose its ways around the world.  This extremism is the real enemy and needs to be defeated if real peace and stability is to be achieved, not only in Afghanistan, but for the rest of the world.

1. Describe the dramatic industrial growth of the late nineteenth century in at least three industries. Analyze the major causes in each case. Include the person most involved in those industries and their actions therein. Please use Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, and George Westinghouse.

It is during the late nineteenth century that America was characterized by remarkable industrial development that brought about steady economic growth and during the time it acquired the status of a world superpower country. Some of the major industrial developments involved the communication and technology, transportation, and energy sectors. As a result of these developments, industrial processes were greatly improved and this was the labor of renowned inventors such as such as Alexander Graham Bell, George Washington, and Thomas Edison among others (Jeffrey 30-40). In the communication sector, the only means available by then was telegraph but later in 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone to ease real-time communication. This greatly improved efficiency of communication. Secondly, Thomas Edison came up with notable inventions a thin foil phonograph in 1887 and a light bulb in 1879. Thomas developed the foil phonograph by further developing the telegraph transmitter which gave off noise that resembled a persons real spoken words. Thirdly, other major technological developments were brought about by George Westinghouse in the energy and transportation sectors. Westinghouse invented a transformer capable of interchanging electricity into power and light. Besides, it was then possible to transmit electricity over distant places without losing significant among of power (Ibid 250).

In the same year, 1865, Westinghouse developed a rotary steam engine and he in addition came up with an air-brake system to improve on the traditional manual brake system. It is then quite evident that the late nineteenth century was a remarkable period of America moving away from the agrarian towards industrial revolution. Most of the industrial processes became more efficient and thus lead to increased productivity in the industrial labor-force. Lighting at night in the industries was a necessity to ensure 24-hr functioning, and with Edison light bulb invention, the problem was once and for all fixed. Industrial machines became more efficient in utilizing electricity as a result of Westinghouse invention of transformer.

2. Why did America enter the war in Europe and when it did
The World War I was fought between the years 1914 and 1918 but the United States of America kept itself a distant from the war until its official entry in 1917during the reign of President Woodrow Wilson. Thus, integrating the works of the aforementioned technological innovators, a new economic status and level of mechanization was defined as compared to other countries such as Britain and Germany which had developed earlier before. In particular, communication efficiency in the government departmentoffices, business organizationsindustries, and armed forces among others increased enormously (Jeffrey 220). Thus, industrial revolution facilitated America to possess better communication and transportation equipment, quality and sufficient food supplies as a result of increased industrial productivity. In addition, United Sates had made a well advanced in terms of weaponry planes- and had an expanded armed forces. Therefore, at the time America entered into the war in 1917, it was better-off in terms of food security and military artillery. Although there were other reasons for America to enter into the, such as the provocation by Germany (sinking of the Lusitania,), the battle for technological show of mighty cannot be ignored (John 20-21).

3. Why did America not enter before
During the period of Americas industrial revolution, it coincided with when the country was recovering from negative effects of the civil war and the onset of World War I. Therefore without better technological advancements, America could not have afforded to enter into the war during its initiation as it was somehow incapacitated technologically and it was also recovering from the civil war (John 25).

A historical analysis
The Battle of Trenton was one of the most important events of the American Revolutionary War, even though its military value was minimal. The enduring image of that campaign is of General George Washington crossing the icy Delaware River. So riveting is that image that most of the details of that time are lost to the modern American consciousness. The desperation of the American cause at that moment has largely been forgotten. The vastness and skill of the force against them is also forgotten.

A natural question arises - How did the Americans manage to win the Revolutionary War The Battle of Trenton (1776) gives us some insight into answering that question. The American Revolutionary War was the first time a colonial territory was able to defeat a major empire and gain unconditional freedom. As unusual as that is, this war is like any other in that it came down to decision making.

Even though the Americans had fewer resources to rely on they were better at using them. They also had the advantage of being the home team. That is an advantage no commander should overlook when crunching troop numbers and planning attacks on hostile territories. The mistakes, good decisions and bad decisions at Trenton form a microcosm of why the British would go on to lose the war. They also provide enduring lessons for the military of today.

Background, Antagonists, Officers, Objectives
The American colonies were formed and populated for a number of reasons. Some, particularly the business interests of the South, maintained closer ties to England than others. Meanwhile the colonists were taking advantage of the wealth of resources in America to rapidly build a sophisticated society. The colonists had survived early hardships of famine, disease, and hostile Native American tribes to emerge. A vast frontier still lay to the West. American-born intellectuals increasingly shaped thought with the recent advancements in the printing press. Some stirred patriotic fervor, not for England, but against it.

The British crown wanted to continue the status quo relationship of control and taxation of the thirteen American colonies. The American colonies declared war on the British Empire in order to gain full independence and self-determination. The greatest impetus for rebellion came out of Boston. Accounts of savage British atrocities flooded the newspapers, eventually convincing all thirteen colonies to work together against the British

In terms of the Trenton campaign the British simply wanted to defend their control of the town and nearby roads and waterways. For the colonists Trenton was a stepping stone in a quest to eventually regain the vital port of New York City. The colonists knew they would not be able to hold Trenton for any length of time, but they hoped the British could be drawn out of entrenched positions, thereby leaving other areas vulnerable.

The area of operations was in the Eastern United States along the Delaware River, which borders New Jersey and Delaware. The winter weather slowed both sides. The Colonists had the additional obstacle of the icy Delaware River. Weather conditions were worsening. This slowed Washington but, at the same time, increased the element of surprise.

The British and Hessians (German mercenaries) were highly trained, professional forces having fought and won extensively in Europe and in the Americas. The British navy was particularly strong, featuring hundreds of state-of-the art warships. The defense of the colonies would be handled by Britain, so at the outset of the war the rebellious forces had no navy of their own. States and localities had militia armies not necessarily designed to fight against the British, but instead to defend local interests from Indians, possible French or Spanish attacks and to serve as a local police force. A plurality were from the Northeastern states of Massachusetts and New York. As the conflict moved South, then West slaves, southern planters and frontiersmen became involved on one side or the other. In comparison to well-bred British troops many of the Colonials had never even fired a gun, certainly not at another person.

After years of tension, the American Revolutionary War was underway in 1776. The population was still very much divided about this war. Many called loyalists wanted to remain within the British Empire. Some were sympathetic with the rebels cause but thought there was no way that the Americans would win. They had good reason to be doubtful. The British had a world class Army and Navy. The rebels had a scattered assortment of citizen militia and a few merchant ships that had been converted to warships. When marching up the East coast, Washingtons troops could not rely on assistance from the sea.

George Washington had become leader of the American forces through sheer force of personality. A surveyor and a planter he married the wealthy widow Martha Custis thereby becoming one of the richest men in America. To that time his military career had been marked by both great successes and failures. He proved to be a great inspirer of men and became an increasingly sage and creative General as the war went on.

The conflict between the two sides centered on British control of American commerce. Americans had local and state legislatures but no voice in the British House of Commons. As the British fought wars around the world increasingly oppressive duties were put on American trade in order to pay for them.

There was an increasing number of Americans who were born there and considered it their home. The concept of paying taxes to an English King thousands of miles away was increasingly odious. Several generations of Americans had grown up with an independent streak. The British still thought of them as mere subjects. As they saw it, the colonists were there to make Britain money and provide a hedge against French, Spanish and Dutch interests in the hemisphere.

When conflict broke out it did not look as if the colonists would last long. The British took control of major ports and tried to divide the colonies in half. This would isolate the south from industry in the north and cut the north of from the wealthy plantations of the south.
In the early months of the conflict the only thing that kept the Continental forces alive was a hit and run strategy that took advantage of natural features, the element of surprise and espionage.

The American spy network developed even faster than its army. With hundreds of spies in New York, Boston and elsewhere the American were winning the information battle. George Washington himself was innovative in this regard using information for purposes of deception.

The British Army was used to European-style, open field, line against line battles. The Americans used more oblique strategies to their benefit, but developing an overall war strategy was difficult. The Americans were simply trying to stay alive and prolong the war.

Infectious disease breakouts and a brutal winter in 1776 were decimating Washingtons troops. Washington had also been soundly defeated in New York and was forced to retreat across the Delaware River. Howes troops occupied the City of New York and Fort Washington, an important strategic location on the Hudson River.

Washingtons troops had only signed on for a one year tour of duty. Their pay was often delayed. They were also ill equipped and ill-disciplined. Americans were afraid to support a losing cause. They knew that reprisals for doing so would be harsh. In the face of these realities Washingtons troops marched toward Trenton, New Jersey on December 26th 1776.

Forces, Strategies, Objectives
After the victory at Bunker Hill the American forces were massed together for a public reading of the Declaration of Independence on July 9th, 1776. A head count totaled 20,275 soldiers half of them under eighteen years old, and most cocky beyond belief (Fast, 1999, 4). Things would change quickly for the Americans. Shortly thereafter, the British would take control of New York City and put Washingtons army on the run. Within six months it looked as if the war was all but over.

After retreating across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, Washington posted small camps along the river to protect against invasion. He knew these camps could not stop an attack unless the Americans had immediate reinforcements. Instead of attacking immediately to finish off Washington, Gen. Howe decided to wait. It would be a costly decision.

Washingtons revolutionary forces were dwindling. He had only 2,400 Americans, many with only a little training. At this stage the Continental Army was a singular unit in name only. It was composed of various state and local militias and mercenaries. Training was minimal and allegiances were local, not national, in nature. Washingtons forces would have had two additional regiments from the Pennsylvania Militia but they were unable to make the river crossing.

There were 24 artillery guns along with muskets and other personal firearms. With unstable supply lines and a lack of funding from the Continental Congress Washingtons army had suffered through an abnormally cold and harsh winter. Large chunks of ice floated in the nearby Delaware River. Icing on that river is rarely that severe. Sleet began late that evening just as the Army began the dangerous crossing. The boats were heavy laden and at a high risk of overturning.

The Hessian detachment defending Trenton was not considered elite, but still could not be taken lightly. Most were German farmers. General Rall, as a Colonel in Germany, had a reputation for training some of the best combat troops Germany had to offer. Most of the officers were Prussian elites and professional soldiers.

Many Hessians were contemptuous of the rebelling Americans. They despised the American language of liberty as the cant of cowards, traitors and poltroons (Fischer, 2004, 59) The British had 1,500 Hessians defending Trenton including 23 officers. The defenders could be reinforced quickly form a number of surrounding areas, including Princeton.

To and From the Front Lines
The American Revolutionary War was a struggle that required the contributions and sacrifices of everyone, whether fighting in the military or not. The correspondence between the troops and their loved ones at home provide a rich historical tapestry and insight into the minds and motivations of those who chose to fight for freedom.

Joseph Hodgkins was a minuteman from Massachusetts who made his living as a cobbler. A thirty-one year old father of seven, Hodgkins had already lost four children to childhood diseases. His wife Sarah had only recently given birth when Hodgkins was commissioned as a Lieutenant in the Continental Army.

Sarah was left with her remaining children in Massachusetts. Joseph sent home his pay whenever possible, but both were suffering hardship and making sacrifices for American freedom. Sarah wrote Joseph encouraging letters, rarely mentioning her own plight. In one letter shortly before the Trenton campaign she wrote I rejoice to hear you are so well as I hear you are from time to time. I feel quite concerned about you all these cool nights on account of your haveing no better habetations to live in... (Raphael, 2001, 140).

This was written at a time when things were looking particularly bleak for the Continental Army. Nearly half of Washingtons Army had recently left because their terms of duty had expired. Letters such as this one from Sarah surely provided a lift for the remaining troops who marched resolutely toward Trenton. In its very nature war is a graphic and violent experience. Most of Washingtons troops were entirely new to it. Elisha Stevens, a Private described a battle this way

Cannons roaring, muskets cracking, drums beating, bombs flying all around.
Men a dying, horrid groans which would grieve the hardest of hearts to see such
 a doleful sight as this to see our fellow creators slain in such a manner.
(Raphael, 2001, 73).

In the early months of the war the Americans had been on the wrong side of this description many times. Now, in Trenton, they would turn the tables. Nobody one was immune to the effects of the war. American Patriot families made great sacrifices for the cause.

Even those not directly involved in the conflict were subject to the wars effects. As Raphael puts it The American Revolution had a way of reaching out and grabbing the people who lived through it (Raphael, 2001, 175). On Christmas of 1776 the Town of Trenton, New Jersey would become ground-zero for this peoples war.

Battle Sequence
Washingtons forces needed any possible advantage they could obtain against the experienced and well supplied British forces. They planned an attack for Christmas Day, 1776. Many of Washingtons soldiers also had terms of enlistment that ended on December 31, so time was of the essence. Reaching the Delaware River at nightfall, Washingtons troops faced a treacherous crossing. The river was choked by ice and a winter storm was in the area. The British and their Hessian mercenaries probably expected the Americans to be celebrating Christmas and trying to stay warm instead of mounting an attack.

It took most of the night to complete the crossing. At dawn, the General sent some of his troops up the nearby river road while he and General Nathaniel Greene took their divisions up the Pennington Road toward Trenton, New Jersey. The British and Hessians camped in Trenton had no reason to believe that the Continental Army was on their side of the river.

Washington took a northern approach that left him no way to retreat. If the Continental Army did not have the element of complete surprise, it is likely that the Town of Trenton could be defended by loyalist forces until reserves could be called up. The bulk of Washingtons Army would then be trapped.

The occupiers of Trenton were primarily Germans. German tradition is to celebrate Christmas heartily. It is very likely that Gen. Washington knew of this and factored it into his plans. The Hessians, with no imminent threat apparent, did celebrate heartily and well into the night. Most, including the commander General Rall, were still in bed when Continental troops entered the area.

The delay in crossing the Delaware had worried Washington. He writes in a letter to John Hancock This made me despair of surprising the town, as I well knew we could not reach it before the day was fairly broke (Fitzpatrick, 1944). If not seen before the attack his troops might be seen retreating, and then the British could close in on all sides. The Revolution could not afford the potential loss of 2,400 troops. With no real choice Washingtons troops forged ahead.

Washingtons troops attacked Trenton from one side while the other troops he had sent down River road under Generals Mercer and Sullivan split and attacked form the other side. The Hessians tried to assemble and mount a counter attack but were scattered quickly by the Continentals assault. An 18th century version of urban warfare erupted as the rattled but determined Gen. Rall marched a detachment of troops up Broad Street.

Washingtons troops attacked them from in between houses and from both sides of the street. Ralls troops were divided and cut off from escape. From the British perspective the battle statistics were grim to say the least. Nine Hundred twenty Hessian defenders were taken prisoner and fifty killed. Only four Americans were wounded. Fifteen battle flags, 1,000 muskets, 6 cannon, 40 horses and 6 wagons were captured from the garrison. In addition, Washingtons troops took several musical instruments and a cache of rum.

Within a week the British were mounting an assault on the Americans who now controlled Trenton. General Cornwallis was planning a trip to England but was sent to Princeton, New Jersey instead. His troops moved toward Trenton on the 1st of January, 1777. Continental Army troops held Trenton but were now themselves in a trap. A much larger force of British was headed toward them. Instead of staying Washington and his troops constructed a ruse to escape, then attacked the British at Princeton. The attack on Trenton had lured enough British out of Princeton so that it was now vulnerable to attack.

It was a strategy borne of desperation yet effective none the less. Cornwallis was chasing Washingtons troops on their home turf. The military victories were minor in scope but they meant survival for the fledgling Continental Army. In the long run British overconfidence and a failure to adapt to a new type of war would cost the British the American Colonies. In the short term lean times were still ahead for the Americans but the Battle of Trenton established an important psychological foothold.

The campaign also marked the emergence of the American intelligence apparatus which would go on to play a critical role in the rest of the war. Bohrer notes this emergence The first clear demonstration of how much American intelligence was improving was the capture of Trenton, where Washingtons spy John Honeyman foiled the British (2003, 138).

These were far from being professional spies. They were farmers, merchants and housewives. This, if anything, made them more effective as they blended seamlessly into the background.  Washington himself contributed to espionage technology and tactics. He is credited with creating a new type of invisible ink and secret codes that made his communications unreadable to the British. He also courted double agents.

On one occasion a British spy was brought to him in front of his staff. Washington laced into the man verbally, and then excused his staff. Alone with the man Washington secretly enlisted him to spy for the Americans. The man was then taken to confinement but Washington made sure there was a key within reach and an opportunity for the man to escape.

The effectiveness of his spies in Trenton and in the following Battle of Princeton prompted Washington to put spies on the payroll, thereby developing an extended network throughout the colonies. These spies were critical both for gaining information on the British and for securing communications between the colonies and varied American forces. Communication was the lifeline for the Americans. The Continental Army was still a work in progress.
Significance

As a military maneuver the Battle of Trenton was not terribly complex. It was an extremely risky move though. Washington, feeling he had little to lose, exposed the bulk of his army to potential capture. In addition, the loss of Washington as an inspirational figure would have devastated the war effort. General Gates army would have then been exposed to the full wrath of the British. The most difficult part of the mission was getting the force intact across a nearly impassable river without being noticed.

General Washington knew his enemy. This was vital to the success of the mission. The mission was kept secret enough so that British reinforcements were out of range. Washington also knew the relish in which Germans celebrate Christmas. He knew that the German commander would be hesitant to mobilize troops that night without specific intelligence. As it turns out many of the Hessians were trying to shake off hangovers when the alert was sounded early the next morning. A few made a hasty escape but the rest were taken with only token resistance.

Trenton must be regarded as a great military victory for Washington, but not because of superior tactics or strategy. Washington found a weak point and hit it hard, then moved on before a massive counterattack could be started. This action would be termed a raid except for the fact that Washington had made additional plans that were based upon the Trenton action. The greatness in this victory comes from its timing, logistics under difficult circumstances, and the reaction it caused throughout America.

The Battle of Trenton was a clear decisive victory for Washingtons Continental Army. Militarily, it was a relatively small victory. The British still held the vital port cities of New York and Boston and were in position to cut off any international assistance the rebels might receive. A much larger effect was had on troop morale and public support of the war effort. The victory came at a critical time for the revolution.

Things had been looking particularly bleak that winter. The victory served as a galvanizing event for the colonies. American systems for disseminating information were as rapid and complex as any in the world. News spread faster than the British could contain it.

General Washington knew that the victory could re-establish American support for the cause. He wrote in a letter to General McDougall I hope that the late success at Trenton on the 26th and the consequence of it, will change the face of the matters not only there but everywhere else (Yoder, 2003).

As the great victory at Bunker Hill faded into memory, the British re-established a sense of invincibility. It is not likely that American hopes could withstand this much longer. Trenton changed the tide, at least in the minds of many Americans. The psychological dominance achieved by the British in the previous year was overturned (British Battles, 2010).

The year 1776 was one of great highs and lows for Americans. The jubilance after the Declaration of Independence gave way to one tragedy after another. By December of that year troop and public morale had changed drastically. Gen. Washington still inspired a core group of patriots however. The victory they provided at Trenton came just in time to save the American cause.

For the British, Trenton hardly seemed a devastating defeat. The Hessians taken prisoner could be easily replaced and the town could be retaken almost immediately. What the British failed to realize was that Trenton would spawn a new determination in the Americans. The British would continue to rely on superior numbers and outmoded battle tactics. As a result, the Continental Army would escape one too many times, eventually turning the tables to corner Cornwallis at Yorktown.

Analysis and Conclusion
The victory at Trenton prompted the Continental Congress to start fulfilling Gen. Washingtons requests. In time the force would become better armed and trained. American gun makers developed a rifle effective at greater range than the one British line troops were using. This was particularly useful in the type of war the colonists were waging. British officers could be picked off at long range, another strategy that surprised the British. The Trenton victory also gave the Americans more time to petition the French for support. The use of their naval assets was critical in forcing the eventual British surrender at Yorktown.

These are but a few of the ramifications that can be traced all the way back to Gates failure to finish off Washington in New York in 1776. The British had a second chance had they only defended Trenton, but it was not to be. Small decisions - Huge consequences.

Instead of the element of surprise this operation might have been termed the element of shock. In fact, General Rall was given a warning that Washington was going to attack. He obviously did not believe it, and failed to make even the least preparations to defend against it. One could argue that the course of the war was changed by that decision. If he only forced Washington to stand and fight for a little while, Howe and Cornwallis could have arrived to crush the last of Washingtons forces.

This is a warning to the commanders of today that every piece of information must be given due consideration and every decision must take both a short-term and long-term approach. Here applies an old clich the enemy is most dangerous when it is wounded. This typically applies because the opponent ceases to take them seriously, thereby weakening them and making the enemy stronger.

When Howe decided to take a break instead of finishing off Washington he opened the door for a much longer war. This mistake has been seen time and time again in warfare i.e. McClellan failed to pursue Lee at Antietam and the war continued for years.  Military officers bear a lofty responsibility. Even the decisions which seem small at the time can have history-changing consequences.

The article discusses the efforts of Jacob Riis, author of the book How the Other Half Lives, in exposing the realities existing in the Lower East Side of New York. More specifically, Riis enlightens the public about the unfortunate conditions that poor people have to live with. The article also highlights the use of photographs in advancing Riis advocacy to tell the world that there exists a totally different world from what is normally thought of in New York.

Having experienced this himself, Riis describes the kind of life that most immigrants have upon moving to New York (or any other city for that matter)  living in makeshift houses for their shelter, doing multiple, and sometimes odd, low-paying jobs, and having to literally work hard for every single meal. Riis first attempt to make these slum conditions known to the public is when he became a reporter for the New York Tribune. This, however, did not prove effective and sufficient to attain his objective. He decided to write the book instead to further his personal advocacy.

The article goes on to explain how Riis capitalized on the power of vivid images and photographs to clearly communicate to the public that there are people in these slum areas that are not living decent lives because of poverty, and are in dire need of help from the government and the rest of the general population.

I particularly liked the point Riis stressed in his book about the two kinds of slum dwellers  one who simply refuses to work and strive hard to improve his economic condition, and one who is willing to work but is still experiencing the effects of poverty. It could have been interesting to see in Riis book how many among the slum people he visited actually belong to the first and second classification. At any rate, the second type of poor are the ones that should be lifted out of their predicament because their perseverance clearly warrants them a better life.

On the other hand, I dont buy Riis idea of blaming greedy landlords, petty grafters, and corrupt officials for the plight of the poor. I believe that these evil people will always be present in any society, but it is up to the individual to decide on his or her own future. People should neither depend heavily on other peoples help nor fault them for not doing so. In the case of immigrants, for instance, it was their personal decision to leave their mother country to go to a foreign country in the hopes of having a better life. They were not forced to do this (except in cases of war, famine, and similar disasters) so they should not blame the government or their neighbors if they end up in a totally different life from what they dreamed of.

However, I do agree with Riis that having a solid family support is crucial to all people  poor or rich. A persons character is defined by how he or she was brought by his or her parents, the kind of values inculcated in him or her, as well as the environment in which he or she grew up. Thus, whether a person is living in a shanty or a mansion, he or she should always have a family to lean on. This, in turn, also benefits the society as a whole since a family is its most basic unit.

I also liked Riis strategy of using photographs to more clearly illustrate the kind of life existing within such a popular city as New York. I think his advocacy could not have taken off if not for this. It utilized peoples natural tendency to more positively respond to things they actually see than just hearing or reading stories about New York slums. Riis determination to make this known to the general public is, indeed, admirable, especially since he effectively did so almost single-handedly.

The article focuses on the Enola Gay exhibition which was displayed at the Smithsonians National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in mid-1995, as well as the criticisms and a few praises it gathered from different stakeholder groups. The author breaks down the event in time slices that coincide with the release of script drafts for the exhibit. For each time slice, the author discusses what the section is all about and the reactions it provoked from stakeholders. The author made use of actual quotes from key personalities such as John Correll of Air Force Magazine to more effectively present all sides of the story to the Enola Gay exhibition.

The article lengthily discusses the initial script of the exhibit which drew sharp criticisms from various reputable institutions and organizations. Critics argued that, as a whole, the first draft was unable to accurately present the whole story of the Hiroshima bombing, and was, in fact, misleading because of both the content and the way it was packaged. The initial script was seen to be anti-American and pro-Japanese, which was ironic because NASM is an American institution. Many government officials and war veterans also took offense in the fact that the script seemed to question the motives behind the bombing, and dramatically presented its negative effects on the Japanese, making Americans look like heartless beasts that devoured hapless Japanese victims.  

Pressured by its stakeholders, NASM officials attempted to revise the script and accommodate their corrections and edits, thus producing several more drafts scripts within a few months. This is when stakeholders from the other side of the sphere started throwing equally harsh criticisms at NASM officials. They claimed that NASM allowed itself to be dictated upon by key stakeholders on what information should be included in the exhibit and how it should be communicated to the public. This, then, seemed to reduce NASM from a reputable museum to a puppet controlled by high-ranking government officials. Critics from other civic and non-government organizations also criticized NASM for hiding some important facts or sugarcoating the real story behind the Hiroshima bombing to avoid offending key stakeholders.

This incident was a big blow not only to NASM but to all other highly respected museums as well. It showed that museums can be subjected to strong criticisms and pressure from stakeholders which, in reality, can be considered censorship of the kind of information they can share with the public.  

To prevent this scenario from happening in the future and to protect museums from this unnecessary information screening from stakeholders, they should strengthen their personality as independent and neutral institutions which present facts based on sound research and studies to educate the public about important lessons in history.

Similarly, government officials must accept the fact that their countrys history may not always be a clean slate but it is their responsibility to share the true story to their people. By true, I mean unbiased, not tweaked to cover up some of their mistakes, and not sugarcoated to minimize the impacts of their wrongdoings in the past.

This is not to say, of course, that museums will be granted absolute freedom of expression without undergoing rigorous research and study, as well as public consultations to ensure that they have the correct information. Museums must be able to prove that their proposed exhibit materials are objective and backed up by hard facts.

To give a more large-scale perspective on this, the article could have looked at other examples of reputable museums that have been subjected to criticisms and pressure from their stakeholders, and how they were able to overcome this predicament.

By comparing conditions pre- and post-World War II, the article discusses the evolution of how society views women, as well as the factors that influenced this change. In general, the author made use of survey results, print (broadsheets and magazines) and broadcast (television (TV) programs) media portrayal of womens role, statistics, and relevant literature such as Betty Friedans The Feminine Mystique to show this evolution.

According to the author, before the war, women were welcomed, and even encouraged, to handle dual roles of a mother and wife, as well as of a professional who is able to make her way up the career ladder. In fact, some women were paid the same, or even higher, rates than their husbands. During World War II, when most of the men were in battle, the government did a massive hiring of women to work on jobs that were previously reserved for men alone. Most women agreed to do this in response to the governments call for patriotism as the then famous icon, Rosie the Riveter, symbolizes. However, patriotism was not the only factor that led women to accept manly jobs it was also because of the need to earn extra income for the family to augment their husbands usually low military pay.

At the closing of World War II, men went back to their homes, and this, in turn, brought about major changes in the roles of women. The husbands expected that as they let go of their firearms and ammunitions, their wives would also let go of their secular jobs to return to their original role of a wife, mother, and housekeeper all rolled into one. Because of this, most women were forced to quit their jobs and take care of their family. For some who refused to do so, they were frowned upon not just by their family, but also by the society as a whole.

The author points to one key factor in the evolution of womens role as dictated by society  mass media. TV programs, for instance, often portrayed a happy family composed of a father, a mother, and their children, and typecast the men as the providers for the family while the women are responsible for ensuring that the family is well taken care of. Womens fashion, as depicted in magazines and movies, also underwent an overhaul  from a masculine look (like that of Rosie the Riveters) to a stylish and elegant feminine look.

However, in discussing the role that mass media plays in defining the role of women, the author presents two theories  reflection versus manipulation. On one hand, mass media is seen as merely reflecting the norms in the society, thus having very little effect on established views and traditions. On the other hand, mass media is described as rather influential and manipulative because of the images it shows which somehow condition and change the mindset of the viewers, as in the case of I Love Lucy.
 
Though I agree that mass media is powerful in molding the minds especially of young people, the decision on how much influential it can be in our lives depends on us. We can either let it sway us to deviate from the principles that our families have espoused, or let it guide us towards a better outlook in life.

Similarly, the role of women in society can and should be decided by women themselves. They can either choose to pursue a financially-rewarding career to support their family, stay at home and look after the needs of their children and husbands, or take on both roles at the same time.

I think the authors view was leaning towards the extreme end that women should be treated equally as men and that they should not be confined to the four walls of their homes. However, we should also bear in mind that some women actually opt to be homemakers and housewives, not because they are forced to, but because this is what really fulfills them as a woman. In such cases, women should not be branded as conservative, old-fashioned or afraid of getting their feet wet in the secular and corporate world.

The article would have been more balanced if it showed positive testimonials from happy housewives and mothers, and considered the reasons behind their choice.

A government is a politically elected and organized group of leaders who assume office so as to run and manage a countrys or a regions resources. This is usually for the main purpose of ensuring that the resources of a country are divided equitably. Therefore, there are a number of reasons why the citizens of a country should trust their government. First and foremost, the government is responsible for the security of the people within the countrys boundaries. This ranges from food security to protection from adversaries. Provision of security also includes the offering of mechanisms that ensures the rights and freedoms of minority groups are not infringed upon (Usarocketman, 2006).

 Secondly, the government maintains law and order from within. Policy making is left to the government organs responsible. Such policies favor the citizenry as they might help in creating subsidies in the many beneficial sectors such as agriculture and education. For instance, subsidies offered to students and farmers help reduce the final cost of education and food respectively. Thirdly, the political set up of the government is supposed to unite the citizens irrespective of their political affiliations (Blind, 2006).

Fourthly, the government sets rules by which interest groups like non-governmental organizations (N.G.O.s) operate without exploiting the citizenry. The regulation of such interest groups also ensures that the resources allocated within certain sectors are utilized properly. Lastly, the government collects and uses taxes for the provision of services. Such funds can only be entrusted in the hands of a government for use in benefiting the citizens of a country through provision of better services. In conclusion, the government is an important organ of authority in any country. It is only reasonable and prudent to trust this organ since it helps in providing security and other important services to citizens of the country it runs. Equitable distribution of resources can be ensured most successfully by a government (Chanley et al, 2000).

Feminism movements are campaigns that are aimed at championing reforms that would give women equal rights with men. They were designed to addressing issues like domestic violence, equal pay, reproductive rights, maternity, voting rights, sexual violence and harassment. Different movements have different goals depending on their country of origin. The movements have a wide history that has undergone various phases in its development. It was started in the 18th century after which its development underwent three different stages called waves.  

The first wave involved white middle together with upper class women of which they were advocating for suffrage and equality, politically. The second wave was aimed at addressing inequalities that existed both culturally and socially while the third wave was a continuation of the second wave through taking post-structural assessment of femininity in which they argued that there was no comprehensive single feminist initiative. The third wave opposed essentialist description of femininity that assumed a general female identity and emphasized on discursive and uncertainty of gender. The third wave comprised of some aspects of queer theory, hall marks of current progressivism. Through this movement, numerous changes in cultures and social practices impacting families relations, gendered language, relationships among men and women, and also religion has changed the way women used to be treated by society in general (Allen, p. 74).

History
As mentioned earlier, it is divided into three different waves. The events that took place in the different waves were influenced by the type of individuals that were at that time and the culture that existed. It worked against what society perceived to be normal and tried to reduce sexiest oppression. It was and it is still a struggle that is aimed at getting rid of the idea of dominance that existed and still exists in various levels and reorganize the society in general so that development can take preference over imperialism, material desires and economic expansion (Russo, p.53).

First wave This is the movement that existed between 18th and 20th centuries. It dealt mostly with suffrage. It was aimed at addressing the issue of male dominance where by women were perceived as victims of both themselves and men. Social constructs that existed were identified through the use of literature. In countries such as Britain, suffragettes advocated for womens vote, which was finally given to some of them in 1918 and to the rest in 1928 because of the role women had played in the First World War. In the U.S, its leaders advocated for elimination of slavery before they started championing for their voting rights. The movement in America was comprised of a wide group of women with others belonging to Christian groups like Womens Christian Temperate Union. After the Nineteenth amendment of the US constitution, the first-wave of feminism ended with the women being granted the right to vote (Arora, p.278).

Second wave this took place between 1950s and 1980s. It was concerned about gender inequality that existed both in law and culture. It capitalized on the achievements of the first wave and started adapting its ideas. The second wave was triggered by a book whose author was Betty Friedan titled The Feminine Mystique. At the time, Betty was a house wife and a mother although she had previously been involved in political activism. Through the book, she expressed the dissatisfaction among the middle class educated women like her who were just housewives and wondered if that was all life had to offer to them but instead she chose not to put the blame on an individual but the society as a whole. This made feminists to campaign against both cultural and political inequalities. The movement enabled many women to understand their selves as deeply politicized and the chauvinist structure that was in placed. This wave was mainly concerned with issues of inequality (Russo, p.53).

Third wave the third wave is seen to be a continuation of the second wave in which it addressed the failures of the second wave. It started happening as from 1990s up to the current day. This wave was greatly interested in enhancing the various achievements that American Women had accomplished. The movement expanded during this wave to include many other women who previously had not associated themselves with their goals that they had established at the beginning of the movement. Although most felt that it was a continuation of the second wave, it made its own significant contributions like the movement that arose in the 1990 that rooted for the second wave and other feminists calling for a fresh prejudice in feminism influence. They decided to bargain for more space among feminists. This interest on attaining equality between gender and race remained high all through the hearings of Thomas-Hill but began reducing during the freedom ride of 1992. This drive that was aimed at encouraging voter registration among the poor communities was accompanied by public speeches that aimed at rallying young feminists (Allen, p. 74).

Scope
According to Ferree and Beth, (p.83), as a movement, it helped bring a lot of change in the American society and enlisted many more participants. Underlying issues concerning culture together with political economy made issues about gender count more than before to both the ordinary citizens and activists. Family Wage System fate was one of the things that made the change in gender order appear necessary. This reflected in the governments policies that were based on the idea of male bread winner and female housekeeper.

Women ensured that the goals that they had set out to accomplish were achieved during this period. They were able to secure protection against employment discrimination, they brought about changes in laws regulating abortion, there acquired a greater representation in the media, they could be able to access to school athletics just like their male colleagues and many other achievements (Hayden, p.34).
Changes started being felt across the industrial society there was an increase in the life expectancy, a decrease in birth rates and large numbers of women got into the paid work force and new policies were enacted that were in accordance with the changing individual and family cycles. This significantly changed understanding of marriage and life as a whole. It was through the good organization of women that feminism became a success. All women including those working, Native Americans, Jews, Catholics, sex workers and those with disabilities figured out what equality could be of significance to them and joined hands to achieve it (Ferree and Beth, p.83).

Social changes
According to Wilcox and Ted (p. 169), it brought about a number of social changes to women they were granted the right to file divorce proceedings and they could make decisions concerning pregnancy including the use of contraceptives and procuring an abortion. They were granted the right to own property. More women were able to secure employment at equitable wages and also university education was made easily accessible to them.

By 2004, the United Nations Human Development report had estimated that women were working more compared to men when both paid and unpaid employment were put into consideration. In some remote areas among third world countries, women performed an average of 20 more work than that which men did or worked an average 20 minutes more than men. According to the United Nations 21st international meeting of Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Womens Association, it was estimated that 66 of all the wok was done by women. They received 10 of the income generated and they had less than 1  property under their ownership. A language that did not appear non sexist was advocated for by use of words such as Ms to both single and married women. The use of gender-neutral words was encouraged which was aimed at reducing assumptions about human biological referents. Roles at home were affected due to the increased employment of women, where both couples were expected to carry out household duties equally (Hayden, p.34).

Feminism movement also affected religion with theology significantly. Some liberal branches among protestant churches began ordaining female priests. In other groups, women have further contested for positions that were previously reserved for only men. Because of the efforts that have been made by this movement, future generations will be able to have equal opportunities in terms of access to education, employment and positions of power. Society is changing gradually from the previous culture that gave men more advantages as compared to their female counterparts.

The 1960s is an era that was ushered greatly by baby boomers as a result of II World war. In the 1930s and 1940s there were numerous births in USA that averaged approximately 2.3 to around 2.8 million people annually (Matt, 2010). This marked the onset of the baby boomers. There were vast changes during this era. There were economical, political, social and cultural changes during this era. Those people who were born around 1930s have witnessed a change in culture and other social systems and it always seems to them as if they started life in a particular country and ended up in another country. It was a culture whereby people were embarrassed to discuss openly their emotional difficulties, sexual history and family troubles. This was because there was a sense of great restraint as well as personal dignity that cultures reinforced. It was a period that was marked by great changes as a result of the Great depression, Second World War, Cold war, Vietnam war and other social calamities. There was a rise in new trend of music, dressing style and a new blend of people. This paper aims to discuss at length the way life was in 1930s and 1940s as compared to the events that shaped the generation that emerged in 1950s, 60s and 70s as depicted by an interviewee (Scott, 2010). The interview brought an immense limelight of the events that framed the two generations. The man interviewed was a teenager during the thirties and he saw it all and remembers as if it was yesterday. In the discourse various aspects will be handled for example, the social, cultural and political activities that were present during this era, the type of entertainment that was present in that period, the fashion trends, and the protests and how it affected him, the social and cultural upheavals of the time, the beliefs, hopes and fears of that epoch. In conclusion there will be a breakdown of what was discussed in the entire paper with hope that there will be sufficient limelight on the major happenings that did take place during this era as seen through a reliable source that happened to be there during that period.

Discussion
The 1930s and 1940s is an era marked with interesting episodes and fear. It is an era that little baby boomers would wish that it never happened. It was marked with Second World War. The adults would sit down the kids and tell them that a bomb could go off any time (Scott, 2010). Talk of what can be called as cultural angst and anxiety. It was no different. Children grew up covering themselves under ancient desks incase of an attack. During 1930s and 1940s almost each household owned a radio as compared to 1950s and 1960s where most of the Americans owned a television. The economy at 1930s was deteriorating because of the effects of anonymity that was present during this period. In 1930s money was already quite scarce as a result of depression. People tried their best to better their lives. Movies at this era were quite hot. The board and parlor games were quite popular. People at this time gathered around the radios to listen to some Yankees as young people joyfully danced to big bands. It was also an era of the great depression.

During this period, the American dream turned into a nightmare. What was known as the land of prospects became total desperation. It was a land of despair. The Americans questioned the entire maxims of which they had based their lives on. Most families tied their possessions on their back and together with their neighbors sought work in the western agricultural fields. The income rate got reduced by 40 and instead of advancing, surviving became the major key (Scott, 2010). The attitudes, lifestyles and institutions changed completely though democracy prevailed. Economics completely dominated politics in 1930s. The Social security Act that was formed in 1935, set programs to make sure that elderly had income and the Wagner Act of 1935 offered workers legal right to finally unionize (Scott, 2010). This was an era of President Herbert Hoover as well as Franklin Roosevelt. The education system was highly affected. There was shortage of money thus parents were not in a position to supply their children with books and clothes. There was increase of gabbling and horse racing became legal. Spectator games for example baseball grew. People wore simple printed dresses with a waist line and mens pants were high waisted and wide. Also vest sweaters were common. Hats were mandatory for males.

Classical and popular music was also common in 1930s and 40s. It is an era that revealed names like Benny Goodman, Glen Miller, Duke Ellington and Tommy Dorsey. This era was so much into movies in order to entertain their depression audience. On the other hand, the 1950s though they are considered as US golden era, the shadow that was brought by Cold War loomed over US and influenced most politics. In 1970s unlike in 1940s, there was anti war movement that was visible in colleges as well as universities. The Kent massacre that was aired in the Television however was devastating and left four students dead (Scott, 2010). There was mandatory busing to achieve racial integration in schools that led violence and disruptions. The hippies of the sixties were mainstreamed in 70s as men wore shoulder length style of hair and there was rage in non traditional clothes for example bell bottom pants, colorful patches, platform shoes, hip buggers among others (Scott, 2010). During the 70s there was emergence of floppy discs. In the 60s and 70s there were profound changes where the president and vice president resigned because of threat of impeachment. The Vietnam War divided the entire country and Roe Wade legalized abortion. There was increase of crime despite the pledge of Nixon for Americans to be united. There was increase of immigration where most people from the Third World would come to US. The decade saw Elvis Presleys death. There was increase of pop music in different styles that comprised of hard rock, soft rock, folk rock, punk rock and country rock. The top names of this era were the Bee, Gees, Aerosmith, Elton, John, Bob Seger, Bob Marley, Rod Stewart among others. There was comeback of movies and new technologies for example, Dolby sound and panavision. The TV came of age in the 70s and the topics for example sexuality that were considered taboos in 40s were openly discussed. The television satellites continued to bring in the horrors of Vietnam War into millions of households and led to the intensifying of anti war sentiments.

Conclusion
It is lucid that the two generations were marked by great changes that have led to the America we have today as my interviewee has shown. The intense yearn for change was marked by terror and disappointments in the social, cultural and political arena. Though it is a reflective era full of horror and alteration of the common trends, it is one that will remain intact in the minds of those who were lucky enough to be there and will be appreciated by generations to come.

The Americans past on social, economic and political experiences is almost not regarded as history anymore by most of the local residents as well as in the world population. Though some a few individuals might not be aware of the calamities and difficulty times that the U.S residents went through, its overt that most of the events which begun during the late 1920s and almost covered the entire period of the next decade are still fresh in the minds of many Americans. According to the historical canons, the 1930s great depression is believed to have crept in most of the nations at time when they had high optimism of progress and prosperity. This was therefore the most unexpected change ever that besieged the world developmental growth rate albeit diversifying the innovativeness and invention on many sectors (Nash, 1996).

Priority to the eve that ushered in the era of the great depression, the American were a bit feeble in their spirit, apparently due to the sufferings of the grievous war that had ended with the conception of numerous anti-social behaviors. While some leaders, economist and other experts thought that the cause of the great depression of the time was due to the misappropriate operations of the international stock markets, this causal factors could not have exactly be defined. To some extend, the cause of the great depression in the united state might have been affected by the social change in one way or another. In 1920s, several activists and lobby groups for both children and women liberties had escalated their activities, implying that compelling of the nation to invest more on the improvement of the social amenities for the ignored and neglected minor communities (Nash, 1996).

With the increased need to eradicate those anti-social behaviors including inhumane treatment such as child labor, women enslavement at workplace, eradication of prostitutions or activities in the brothels and beauty centre among others might greatly have affected the nations expenditure. Looking at this past, the events were transformative efforts towards attaining a better world, which not only entailed the change in the social behaviors but the change in the way of governance and leadership. The great depression might have thus a great negative in effects on the ideology of progress it may have impeded the implementation of the rightful policies. For the Americans, they actually longed for greater effectiveness in the government operations, particularly in tenets which gave all of them equality and freedom.

On the precise study of the American developmental strategies preceding the great depression, the Americans had no false dream of their prosperity since the early economic, social and political developmental changes of 1920s. It was vividly depicted that various non-governmental organization together with other non-informal groups had organized themselves to bring a change to the American lives. The labor group movement organizations and the lobby groups acting as the voice for the favor of the minor groups, the weak andor the enslaved fought for equality. The rise of such group was triggered by the need to address the need of the unevenly distributed wealth among different groups and communities. What this tells us is that the blame of the great depression should not be put on the institutions handling matters on the world stock markets, but more of the causes can are traced in the poor political and economic systems fraught of corrupt activities both at the higher governmental ranks to the lowest ones including those of the organizations dealing closely with ruling government such as the municipal authorities. As evidenced, several policies of the 1920s including the healthy food security were already formulated, but surprisingly were rather partial favoring the people of high class and to some little extend people hailing from the group of middle class (Nash, 1996).

It was hard times of the great depressions when Roosevelt came into throne.  The Roosevelts rise to the highest seat was not linked with any of the economic or political policy promises of the period, a fact indicating that the great depression was a mammoth that rocked the nation unexpectedly. Under the assumption this was something that had occurred before, it would have been used a major subject in the political campaigns, but little is revealed to show its employment in the political field. Whether this was a major political point of focus or not is not of significant importance, rather the review of the measures taken by Roosevelt are crucial to the bringing of equality and freedom change to the U.S citizens.

The takeover of the American throne by Roosevelt was at time when the state was grappling with numerous social and economic challenges. In order to disentangle the Americans from the economic calamitiesstruggles, Roosevelt believed in strategy which he referred to as the New Deal. This New Deal strategy was blurred defined in its own nature though resulted to great changes in the way of handling the political, economic and social problems that had plagued the nation at that time. In the endeavor of addressing the problems, Roosevelt encouraged the enactment of policies which were objectively geared towards the restoration of the trust from the publiccitizens. Following these challenges, changes were made concerning the child labors but which did yield much positive improvement of the social life of the young. Due to the conservative nature of the legislation, large proportion of the young continued to suffer in the industrial sector and plantation farming working to earning their leaving and support the lives of other members of the families they hailed from (Nash, 1996).

Apart from the child labor legations, the high unemployment was also closely linked with a few other problems necessitating formulation of policies, which addressed or sought to find solution for a healthy leaving. Considering such factor of food scarcity and the resultants problem of malnutrition diseases, Roosevelt felt it necessary to provide citizens with a better healthy service through the enactment of the drug policy. This meant the New Deal though unplanned or unstructured as it mighty have been, it accentuated on political advancement of the tasks of those elected in the federal government. More so, it may also be argued that through the open system of the New Deal, it appeared Roosevelt rule was vesting more powers to the government rather than decentralizing the powers (Nash, 1996).

The new deal played a major role in enhancing the integral development and survival of the American. While most of the people thought of using the mechanized systems to deal with food scarcity and improve agricultural productivity, the New Deal never employed such ways as opposed to the industrialization era. Roosevelt seemed to be antagonistic on the use of mechanized system perhaps in the fear that such systems would have led to escalation of unemployment situation in the U.S.

The Roosevelt government felt the burden of striving to rescue of the devastated economy of the nation. This compelled it to incorporate the nations community in rebuilding of the country economy through ensuring the establishment of adequate food production. It therefore supported the farmers with provision of farm tools as well as providing them with relief foods throughout the period of the great depression. Roosevelt rule thus gave a priority to what appeared to many a cost-sharing system between the government and the society. Undoubtedly, the provision of basic foods and drug to the poverty stricken households by various governmental organizations comprising of major federal emergency agencies also portrayed a humanitarian act of the government, and were the most important means of help the maintaining and recovery of the countrys economy. This was achieved through the establishment of several aids agencies, which kept on increase year after year at unprecedented rate, which showed the governments efforts towards attaining greater effectiveness in operations, and conservation of citizens rights of access to basic needs.

Furthermore, unlike the present business world, the U.S government worked closely with the world business owners in the country to ensure that the poor were protected from exploitation. The government check on the agricultural products price helped mitigate the severity of food inaccessibility to the locals, but they did this prudently by implementing subsidiary funding or other special funding in the production of such basic goods or delivery of the services. With Roosevelt efforts having positive impact since the conception of the New Deal, he however had the greatest blow in 1937 when the setbacks on the enactments of the womens suffrage and child slavery. The optimism of the economy rescue was thus heavily hit at the end the 1930s decade most probably by the preparation of the impending WWII (Nash, 1996).

Finally, I conclude that the American early experience of the great depression in 1930s and the New Deal had profound effects on the lives of many citizens, and most of the events that happened from 1900-1945 aimed at bringing modernity to the people. The great depression in 1930s and the New Deal set the face to development of the Americas economy by eliminating the dependencies on the foreign or imported commodities such as food stuffs. Though the new deal may be treated with less regards, its of paramount importance in the establishment of core governmental agencies and in the streamlining of federal operations.

Hip A History tells us about the American history, since the times of the slavery up to the Net. The novel is written by The New York Times reporter and the author set an aim to explain what is hip in American culture since the time it has appeared on the territory of the U. S. It should be noted that this novel is full of antagonist themes such as black opposition to white, men to women. This Essay would examine tricksterism. It would reveal the meaning and the role of trickster within the pages of Hip A History. And it would be essential that the essay would examine the presence of tricksters and tricksterism in our present day life

Alongside with the hip and hipsters John Leland raises the question of the trickster and the role of tricksterism within the black culture. In his interview to Joe Estes,  during which a number of questions were raised John Leland defined tricksters as the following  Tricksters understand chaos as order. Societies create them to break the rules that hold these societies in place, preventing them from evolving (Estes, 2004). It should be noted that tricksters are essential for every society and they appear to keep the society in the right order, being rebels, they recognize the one and only order of the house. It is not surprising that since the 18th century, the tricksters and tricksterism were developing alongside with the hip and hipster. John Leland consider that the influence of tricksters and tricksterism on the society is inevitable and mentioned a number of tricksters, whose impact on the society was quite a significant one It was a Yoruba trickster (not the Euro Christian devil) who met Tommy Johnson and Robert Johnson at the crossroads and taught them to play the guitar. PT Barnum, Mark Twain, Richard Pryor, Muhammad Ali, Bob Dylan, Miles Davis, Terry Southern and Richard Hell are all tricksters. And hip would not be the same without them (Estes, 2004). In his book the author reveals the dependence of the hip and trickster, considering that if the hip could be called an epic, than trickster is undoubtedly would be the main figure, attracting social attention, the star of the whole performance. He introduces the people whose impact on the American culture is inevitable and the burning satire of the key figures in American literature, such as Mark Twain, could not leave the society indifferent. The author makes a stress on the American satire as the best illustration of the trciksterism. From Twain to Bruce and Pryor the American satire was developing tricksterism alongside with the hip. The nature of the tricksterism is filled by the polar questions it opposes the blacks against the whites, the poverty against the richness, men against the women. Moving ahead from the binaries the revolutionary nature of trciksterism reveals the artificial values. Defining tricksters and non  tricksters John Leland consider that Non  trickster heroes help societies distinguish between right and wrong tricksters violate the boundary between the two. In a nation artificially divided into black and white, inside and outside, tricksters open channels of exchange (Leland, 2004). According to the Leland the core ideas of tricksterism is to break through the artificial barriers between the nations. The racial question, which let the whites top oppress the blacks for the decades was broke through by the burning activity of the tricksters. The ideas of equality between the blacks and whites could be regarded to as a tricksterism activity. It is not surprising that tricksters played quite a significant social and historical role in ridding off the artificial difference created between men and women, the blacks and the whites, the rich and the poor. Tricksterism as it is defined by John Leland has already found its reflecting in a number of literary and media works and it should be noted that it has already spread worldwide.

Even the author defined the time we live as the post-hip I consider that there we still could find a number of tricksters and their activity is aimed on the destruction of the artificially created barriers. It should be noted that nowadays not only Afro  Americans are involved in the struggle but also other representatives of the National minorities and women as well. We could observe the illustration of tricksterism in our everyday life, when the activists of different movements provide their demands. Among the most noticeable figures among the tricksters of the late 20th century could be undoubtedly called Michael Jackson, his creative work was intended to beak through the boundary between the blacks and the whites. One the best illustration of tricksterism and opposition between men and women, could be called The North Country, based on the real events and telling the story how women could protect themselves in the male society. It also should be noted, that among the contemporary musicians and band we could find a number of tricksters, who with the help of their creative activity reflect their personal vision on some situations. The burning satire could be found in texts and music of the Green Day punk rock band from California. They protested against the War in Iraq and activity of the current United States governmental policies and their offensive texts had a direct allusion on the president in power George W. Bush. It goes without saying that these texts and music provided quite a significant social impact, especially on the young Americans, revealing the truth and the attitude of the popular figures to the current state of things. It goes without saying that huge social impact and resonance is the core thing provided by the tricksters. The burning satire of OHenry and Jerome K. Jerome alongside with Mark Twain could be the best tricksterism activity criticizing the current state of things, showing the rough truth of the reality. The American muckraking movement could be also regarded as the good example of tricksterism activity, as they revealed the truth and was intended to break through the social inequality and unfairness.

In the end I would like to make a stress on the fact that without tricksters our life would not be the same as it is now. Tricksters are rebels, changing the current order, who do not mind the difficulties and they are very successful. Among the worldly known trickster, who is the primary female activists, struggling for the rights of women in Saudi Arabia is Wajeha Al-Huwaider. She does not  give up attempts to ruin the developed attitude to women and he burning criticism of the government, attract huge social attention and her activity as a trickster would be able to ruin the system of unfair attitude to women, as well as the unfair attitude to the black was ruined in the United States. I think that the role of trickster in the present day world did not lost its acuteness.

2 Bob Dylans Chronicle Volume One and Jerome Salingers The Catcher in the Rye as real and imagined autobiography reflecting the certain period in the historical context

Both novels take the reader into the fascinating adventure, perfectly reflecting the historical period it describes. The real autobiography of Bob Dylan and imaginary hero of Salingers book Holden Caulfield perfectly reveal the atmosphere and historical context of the both books. The core idea of this essay is to examine how these books reflect their historical contexts. To describe how the main heroes of the both books and the novels themselves could be related to as the specific products of the time.

It should be noted that both books describe the same place, where Bob Dylan and Holden Caulfield arrive to seek for their fortune. It should be noted that Salingers book reveals his personal attitude to New York, where the protagonist spend several days. The atmosphere described by Salinger seems to be duller than it is in Bob Dylans autobiography, whose reminds are brightly colored by the new city and new expectations. The days Holden Caulfield spends in New York are filled with strong drinks and solitude. It is a well known fact that the main hero of the novel has become a cult figure for the youth in some time. His rebellion and difference from the others could not leave young people indifferent, he was unable to find his place in the society. It should be noted that due the date the novel was published is 1951. Six years after the World War II ended and there could be found a number of lost young people, tired with the surrounding stupidity, lost in the personal loneliness, willing for changes. The reflection of the historical context is perfectly shown within the pages of the book. Adults living at this time have passed through the Great Depression and took an active participation in the War, with all its horrors. It is a paradox that the war, which cost the nation thousands of lives was the tool, which opened the door for the national prosperity. It goes without saying that with growth of the material stability caused the effect that people desired to forget the war. Huge number of people bought different goods, houses, second cars. The nation was intended to rid off the past and have a new start. It goes without saying that there was developed a new form of materialism and extreme conservatism in traditional values. That is why Holden could not find his place in this world of growing prosperity and everything seemed dull and disgusting for him. The main hero, carefully depicted by Salinger, within the atmosphere of conservatism and prosperity at the time of Joseph McCarthy and President Eisenhower could be related to as the first heroes, who caught the restless spirit of American Youth. In 1951 his appearance was corresponding to the appearance of the first famous young Americans, the rebels of the 50-s, Elvis Presley and James Dean. The extreme desire of changes, when the world seems dull for you that is the core connection of the main hero with the youth of 50-s who were brought up in after war times, the time of growing prosperity. It goes without saying that the novel is the perfect reflection of the American current state of things and the main hero could be related to as the product of the specific time.

If we speak about Bob Dylans autobiography, it should be noted that this book is written in pretty different tone and almost the same period of time is reflected through the expectations and hopes. He first arrives in Manhattan in 1961. Bob Dylan shows New York pretty differently than Salinger does. He reveals the magical nature of this city, calling it the magic city of possibilities and his personal great expectations Dylans New York is a magical city of possibilities -- smoky, nightlong parties literary awakenings transient loves and unbreakable friendships. Elegiac observations are punctuated by jabs of memories, penetrating and tough. With side trips to New Orleans, Woodstock, Minnesota and points west, Chronicles Volume One is an intimate and intensely personal recollection of extraordinary times (Dylan, 2004, Foreword). It goes without saying that describing his personal experience, he revealed the young Amerca, with its hopes and expectations. His personal experience is also adding a lot to the whole atmosphere of the book. Bob Dylan appeared in the quite scrutinized times for American youth, when it was rebelled from the adults, who passed through the horrors of War and Great Depression. He was the one who was on the top of the movement. He experienced the same feelings as American youngsters did, being young and popular, the same like they were, bothered with all the same problems. The author and the main hero the same time is of the same nature as Salingers hero, but he was taught to see the positive from life, to live in his own world, to breath the air of personal rebellion. Critics writing about this book consider that Bob Dylan Touches a wide variety of themes and the book perfectly reflects the historical context Dylan touches on a fascinating variety of topics - personal, musical, historical. New York at the dawn of the 60s is recreated with warmth and detail. This is the flickering urban landscape of Visions of Johanna, peopled with all kinds of characters looking for the inner heat, mingling in cluttered, carefully observed Greenwich Village apartments. In Dylans memory New York is cold, muffled, mysterious, a city of epiphanies I passed a horsedrawn wagon full of covered flowers, all under a plastic wrap, no driver in sight. The city was full of stuff like that. The book and the author himself are the products of the post-war times, rebels of the new born America.
In the end I would like to make a stress on the fact that both books have a lot of in common. The main heroes are nearly of the same time. And even they see America differently both authors masterfully revealed the surrounding atmospheres, which is now could be related as historical context. And certainly both books are perfect reflection and products of the specific time in American history.

1.
Bill Clinton was one of the US presidents who brought changes to the country. First his rule was able to turn USA economy historical largest fiscal deficit into surplus.  His rule was involved in effective combating of ethnic killings in Kosovo and Bosnia. It was during Bill Clinton rule that America attained the highest level of economic success since early 1960s. Bill Clinton changed the U.S.A sluggish economic growth to a more desirable growth. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010).

2.
He initiated policies that encouraged government spending to stimulate economic growth, tough laws on crimes, tax reforms to shift tax burden to the rich, jobs to welfare recipients. He initiated tax reforms that shifted tax burden to the rich. He also initiated tough criminal laws to curb criminal activities which had risen at an alarming rate. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010).

3.
Bill Clinton is one of the USA presidents who acted wisely in guiding the nation through tough times. When he was taking the office, USA economy was experiencing the largest historical budget deficit. His rule was able to turn this deficit into surplus which was a big achievement to people of America. Through fiscal policies such as increase in government policies and creation of employment opportunities to recipients of unemployment benefits and taxing the rich, USA economy was back into the right track. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010).

4.
Clinton is perceived as a man of the people. He severally stood firm in support of traditional liberal goals. He ensured decrease in military expenditures to cater for domestic needs, legalization of abortion, conservation of environment, provision of equal education and employment opportunities to all Americans, gay rights and health insurance. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010).

5.
To effect changes, Clinton had to stretch changes that will accommodate reforms. Changes such as shifting taxation burden to rich, control of arms, gay rights, and abortion legalization, in one way or another affected the constitution. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010).

6.
Clinton severally challenged the congress which was dominated by the Republicans. After rejection of health care reform initiative, he capitalized on republicans mistakes. He refused to sign a controversial budget which had been passed by the Republicans dominated congress. Clinton remained firm to act of the congress to generate a shut down of the federal government. Voters blamed Republicans for this and reelected Bill Clinton for a second term in 1996. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010 Michael 2010).

7.
Clinton balanced his role as a president. First, he provided economic leadership. His government fiscal policies brought USA economy back to the right track. He played a big role in political area. He was a leader of Democrat Party he succeeded in peace negotiations between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, facilitated end of ethnic killings in Kosovo and Bosnia. He also fostered for social welfare of Americans. His reforms aimed at ensuring employment to unemployed, environmental conservation, provision of equal opportunities for education and employment for all Americans. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010 Michael 2010).

8.
One of his advisors was his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton who had long professional achievement both in Arkansas and beyond. Janet Reno who was a Florida prosecutor served as attorney general, Donna, E Shalala formerly a chancellor to University of Wisconsin at Madison was secretary of health and human services, Jesse Brown the leader to Disabled American Veterans served as secretary of veterans affairs, Henry G. Cisneros who was the mayor to San Antonio served as secretary Madeleine K Albright who had previously served as an ambassador to United Nation served as secretary of state, Laura who was a California economist served as the chair of Council of Economic Advisers. Robert Lubin, and Lawrence Summers served in the national Economic Council, with other more advisors, it is apparent that Bill Clinton had talented administrators and advisors. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010 Michael 2010).

9
Bill Clinton was in the right place at the right time. He took over the power at a time American needed substantial reforms to ensure economic turn around- from retarded growth to positive economic growth, and deficit to surplus. He was at the right place i.e. America where good leadership was required to ensure equal opportunities to all, foster environmental conservation, and ensure rights to all, and reduce tax burden on low income people. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010 Michael 2010).

10
In his rule Bill Clinton fell short of what an integrity person should possess. The illegal affair with Monica Lewinsky, who was a white house intern, spoke a lot. It was also reported that he had obstructed justice, and abused power following this case which was against the oath he had taken. Other cases include the whitewater financial cover ups cover-up. He was also accused of sexual harassment against Paula Jones. Although he survived aftermath of this occurrences his character was questioned. (Miller Center Public Affairs. 2010)

11
Generally, Bill Clinton was not a president who demonstrated policy flexibility. Take the case of health reform, its failure was due to lack of consulting the public and all stakeholders in American economy. He stood firm in support of traditional liberal goals such as increasing expenditures to cater for domestic needs, legalization of abortion, conservation of environment, provision of equal education and employment opportunities to all Americans, gay rights and health insurance.

12
I feel Bill Clinton was an intelligent president. Despite all cases he faced, at last he overcame the storm. Cases of Monica Lewinsky, Paula Jones, and impeachment trial were some of cases he overcame. He was also able to turn USA economy largest deficit into surplus.  Despite ruling in time when congress was dominated by Republicans he was able to challenge them. He refused to sign the controversial budget and to the public, the republicans were to blame.

13
The reelection of Bill Clinton in 1996 showed that American people respect him. His influence during campaigns for Current president election has a lot to say. Bill Clinton economic achievement towards 1990s economic boom in America also commands respect from Americans.

14
Bill Clinton is not only respected in America but also globally. His call for ending ethnic killing in Bosnia and Kosovo were welcomed and supported by western countries and their NATO wing which restored peace in this area. However, Clinton inaction to Rwanda genocide and Haiti political instability lead to criticism of his leadership as far as foreign affairs are concerned.