American History

In the nineteenth century American government, there was an increase in the level of contributions to education. It has resulted to expansion of enrolment as well as augment in the quality of schools   especially in the system of public education.  In addition, the emergence of American university is significant in this century. Basically, knowledge and familiarity in science was introduced in the family through familial gatherings where educated middle-class men entertained. They also got further awareness through texts, primers, newspapers, lectures, magazines and museum visitations. In the later years, the knowledge was incorporated into private academes, public schoolhouses and institutions of higher education.

However, gender has also been an important component in receiving education. Historically, women had been enthusiastic in endeavouring science studies. In the nineteenth century, they could obtain that through publication of texts, and their personal involvement in education as teachers. However, as merely learners, womens  appropriateness in studying science were questioned or worse frowned upon. At the same time women also published their writings and research studies under a males  name or there were disclaimers printed under their names. In addition, women has to be learned in participating in discussions during semi-formal gatherings so as for them to be included in the circle and gain scientific and other knowledge. From these informal gatherings, women obtained pertinent resources as experimental apparatus, libraries, and cabinets containing minerals, and other anthropological materials that they had written about.  An example of woman who had obtained knowledge this way is Ellen Lagemann, who had written an educational biography wherein she records interactions and hence asserted that she was activated . . . and a change thereby produced in the self (Lagemann, 1979). Another woman by the name of Esther Edwards Burr, was fortunate to have an access to her fathers  library (Jonathan Edwards) while she was growing up. She can easily communicate on numerous topics with her husbands  circle, Aaron Burr, president of Princeton. Her letters to family and friends revealed an interest in scientific knowledge.  In addition Elizabeth Blackwell (Blackwell, 1895 p. 62, whose interest in preventive medicine, sanitation as well as moral reform, personal hygiene, and natural had become a pioneer worker in opening the medical profession to women had faced challenging educational barriers during her endeavour in studying medicine at Geneva College in west central New York. In a letter for a dear friend, Lady Noel Byron in London, she asserts that women doctors should not assume a secondary position in the medical profession.

Additionally, slowly at this era scientific activities surfaces and pursued within families. Still, women who were trained in fine arts assists in the illustration and colouring of the plates that typically accompanies governmental documents and published records that was credited to their spouses. At the same time, in 1830s Harpers Weekly printed columns entitled Scientific Intelligence, and presumed that women busy as they maybe with their families have time to read feature articles on topics such as astronomy, natural history and geography in addition to their typical fare of fiction, recipes and household tips. Moreover, society repeatedly emphasize temperance on women, and creating a model for them.

Still, with regards to women having formal education is deemed questionable. This educational status quo of women is can be primarily rooted from the scientists point of view regarding womens education. Historically, they focus of much of their deliberation and study on the  woman problem . A case in point is in Beechers  (1866) reflection that American females from the middle and upper classes of society were sick, and they were sick because they were women. In connection, scientists kept on deliberating women and education. Three  reasons behind such behaviour is that (1) like other Americans in the nineteenth century, thinkers that time tends to believe that education is the solution to many social problems (2) and if there was an increase in number of women studying to be professionals they were threatened given the fact that they saw women as direct professional and economic competition (3) also, they insisted that the  hard  sciences and medicine should not be included in curriculum of females   hence, preserving vital intellectual, social, and industrial process for males and lastly, (4) search for knowledge had greatly attracted the females attention and thereby they challenge their traditional thinking.

However, by the mid nineteenth century education had fascinated even the most effective feminist theorist. Hence they were able to challenge the old ways of thinking. This time, the women s movement promised to threaten immense transformation in educational system in America. Yet, in the late quarter they only illustrated a minimal amount of progress. It can be rooted that the attacks of scientists on women s education were deemed significant. They brought new solutions to Woman Question subsequent to women s education. Theorists also endeavoured other sciences (such as evolution, race annihilation, racial supremacy of Caucasians, organic versus mechanical society, the  perfect  society, psychology of female among others) that show that educated women would be a problem to the society. Hence, no matter what scientific arena the scientific conservatives illustrated pursuing studies that would alter or discourage education of women. Although they came not when the pioneer academies were having problems surviving their potential closing nor when women tries to integrate higher education to their vocational courses.

And since new theorists researched and wrote about opening a higher education for women, they tend to be perceived as not against the feminist movement. However, though they drive  scientific  arguments that dwell on new intellectual achievements and accepted women s intellectual capacities, they still cautioned that these achievements were dangerous. They said that it is so because it pursuing scientific activities may threaten woman s health, and may result for the human race to fail and not survive (Porter, 1891) . Hence they had raised a subtle hindrance to women s accomplishments and opportunities. At the same time there were women who desire to seek open professional andor post graduate education in a hope to enter learned jobs. However, new theorists surfaced with evidence that illustrate woman as incompetent, and they can only reach a mediocre level of achievement. In this sense, women can merely act a supportive role in scientific discovery. Like Rousseau, these new theorists conceived that males were primarily destined to discover and innovate, and women can merely apply and maintain. Hence, according to these theorists if feminist movement persevered, the social order would be threatened. As a consequence the status quo would be shaken and will be detrimental to the continuance of the humanity. An example of research study curtailing the growth of feminist movement is that of Dr. Clarkes   Sex in Education  in 1873. The writing had been influential in making the society believe that educated females in their rigorous intellectual work would risk their health. He based it on two clinical assumptions (1) woman s functional period (menstruation), and (2) the psychosomatic linkage that should reserve physical energy. According to them in intellectual endeavours the brain draws nourishment from the rest of the body. Hence, if the brain was worn-out, the body suffers and health could be endangered. They assert that it may cause hysteria and neuralgia. In addition, it could be more challenging for the women because she has her monthly period, and the  vital energy  would be wasted on fighting the illness. Worse, it could result to women s  derangement  as well as  instability.  Consequently, intellectual activities while undergoing reproductive system interruptions were deemed the result of fecundity of female graduates. Some theorists wonder if educated women may have children at all to the point that there would be a possibility that American men would have to import their wives from foreign countries.

Even in the newspaper and magazine in that time, women are perceived subservient to their husbands. Nineteenth society deemed that a wife s role should complement her husband, take care of his affairs, and take care of their children ( One Farmer s Wife , 1905). Society also required that wives should support her husband in all of his endeavours. She must be good in domestic management and if not she should take counsel from authorities. Another argument that placed limitations on the possible achievements of an educated female drawn from biological science are that male superiority is genetically variable and masculine talent is greater compared to women. These theorists based on weight of the brains which was connected to the complex evolutionary theories and understated psychological studies. They speculate females  brain and concluded that since it was smaller than that of males hence it was inferior. They considered the differences in the variation of intellectual as well as anatomical components. In addition, these theorists emphasize the likelihood as well as women s desire for marriage and training their offspring as a pertinent aspect of woman s career. They also highlighted the fact that women tend to have mediocre grades of ability as well as attainments compared to their male counterparts. This factor limitation had better be resolved through revision of existing the educational systems thereby there would be a difference in teaching strategy for males and females.  Hence, it was deemed that the education of women for professions such as statesmanship, administration, philosophy, or that of scientific studies, where a very few gifted individuals are required by the society. Compared to teaching, nursing, medicine or architecture where numerous demand for professions are required. Although high school as well as college education was achievable and deemed suitable for women, postgraduate education was socially a more remunerative venture for males. For these theorists in this era an educated woman should be an education for motherhood. And even though there were some minor changes as they were disposed to permit meagre intellectual training for females, they maintained women as acceptable to their intellectual strata. In an article by an unknown contributor for Popular Science Monthly (1878) ,  thinkers would not encourage women to endeavour a laboratory work, into a dissecting room nor put up their own colleges for females to be trained as they were just mere savants  
In the same way, Dr. Clarke (1872) asserts that though single-sex education presents educational advantage to at any rate some students and that in actuality is unchallenged in the report. In the same way, it is not doubtful that diversity amongst public educational establishments can provide the society good. He also asserts that the achievement of what had been long hoped for is to be made   that is an equality of education through co-education between men and women.

The significance of domesticity provoked an immense deliberation over the subject of female education. Nonetheless, for the most part, it was determined that females ought to obtain selected education, and determine about the subjects to be included. Then in 1870, Vassar College became the first American institute that was built exclusively for females and granting Bachelor s degree (Barus, 1890). Though other opportunities in arts, philosophy, science and literature had been opened, still, teaching had been the most well-known and accepted profession in that era. Even mass communication media pushes for women to be educated to help manage their domestic lives. Furthermore, women were basically sent to educational institutions for her to find a good husband who would be her leader.

In summary, it can be deduced that at this time, scholars greatly endeavoured to establish distinct differences between men and women. They are so obsessed with gender difference and regulate individuals behaviour even attitudes and ideals if possible. This is the era where a new group of American women started to challenge customary conception of women and reconfigure their terms of analysis with regards to their roles at home and at work.