American History

The fight for gender equality and equity has been common since time immemorial. However, the need for change by women especially after the Second World War took a different perspective, when women elites came out strongly to defend their rights in the society (America). This was as a result of the change of roles from traditional roles to formal. Industrialized roles made most of the women to feel they were equal since they could perform the same roles as for men. However, the paper will only focus on the economic shift especially on women, impact of First and Second Feminism and aspect of an ideal woman in the society. The paper will also discuss the radical movements and antagonism that was being posed by anti-feminism in America.

Introduction
World War II was fought between the years 1939-1945. It led to massive destruction of properties and many people were killed during the war period that lasted for six years. The war brought a lot of challenges to the entire population of the Americans and the only way America was to succeed in the battle, was only possible if more women were recruited in the industry. The American government had a desire for their women to be in a position to build planes, tanks and even ships that were used to transport soldiers to war zones. So they had to come up with a strategy to lure them to play mens roles.

Initiating American women to do industrial duties
The American government was so smart to make the women active on their duties they urged them to join the labor force telling them that it was their patriotic duty to defend the State and the only way they could do that was by working in the industries. However, loyalty to the State was not the only incentive that was being used by the government to lure women into the work force but they also adopted other means (Freedman 2003). For instance, they formed a commission known as the War Man Power Commission and their basic ideal behind the formation was to deceive the women that the commission was formed to improve their economic status in the society and to ensure that their husbands and sons were well fed in the war zones to reduce death cases that were related to poverty or hunger. In return, they worked so hard and improved the economic standard of the government. In some, cases the government could even come up with adverts or posters to lure women to join industrial jobs and forget the traditional roles of women as it could improve their economic activities.

According to Gatlin (1987), women were constantly being reminded that their husbands, sons, and brothers were in danger because they were not receiving the supplies they needed. The government used several slogans to convince the women on the relevance of their role (industrial) in the society such as, Victory is in Your Hands, We can do it And Women the war needs you were all used to convince women that their countrys needs were more important than their individual comfort.

Economic shift and social impacts
As a result of the propaganda, American women, whether patriotism, economic benefits or independence, they were naturally motivated to join the industry. In July 1944, when the war was at its peak, over 19 million women were employed in the United States, more than ever before. As a result, the economic status of the women improved to a small margin as compared to the government.

However, applying for a job was not necessarily as easy as it appeared to be, some factors were taken into consideration and most women that were employed were taken from rural areas as they could work cheaply and faster as compared to the urban women that were weak and could not do heavy industrial duties. As a result, rural women became more empowered economically and migrated from rural areas to urban centers where industries were situated. While their boys were fighting for equality and human rights abroad, American women were getting discriminated against at home.

Women and Employment
 Though according to Hooks (2000), women were turning out for jobs at alarming rates, many employers refused to hire them, even though they had met labor requirements. Some employers out rightly refused to hire women, while others set unreasonably low hiring quotas for women. Most people believed that men should be the sole breadwinners in the family, and as a result women were among the last hired in the early stages of the war. Though several million women were hired, they were not necessarily treated the same as their male counterparts.

Equality at Work
 In 1942, the National War Labor Board (NWLB) attempted to erase some of the long standing inequalities in womens pay, when they decided to employ an equal pay principle. Most employers thought that the traditional womens pay scale was acceptable, and some reasoned that there was no need to make womens pay comparable to mens since they argued that womens work was lighter as compared to men and did not deserve to earn more or same amount of money with men. But this was far from the case. Women who joined the labor force as a result of World War II were often referred to as production soldiers.

Their standard workweek was 48 hours, though many women frequently worked overtime, Sunday was their only day off, and most vacations and holidays were cancelled just to ensure that their productivity was maximized. Even though they were not forced to work like slaves women of all ages operated large cranes, which were used to move heavy tanks and artillery. Some women loaded and fired machine guns and other weapons to make sure they worked. Other women operated hydraulic presses, while some worked as volunteer fire fighters. Some women, who formerly worked as saleswomen, maids, or waitresses, took over more essential jobs such as welders, riveters, drill press operators, and taxi cab drivers.

Women found themselves participating in every aspect of the war industry from making military clothing to building fighter jets. American women worked day and night and as a result, there was a great impact on the American economy. Many women who got employed were expected to work extra time and made items such as cloths, jets and offered economic services such as operating machines that produced goods that were sold to other parts of the world hence improving economic status of the State.

Feminism and Equality
The term feminism refers to the protection of womens political, economic and social aspects in ensuring gender equality in opportunities, payments, voting rights, sexual harassment and social roles and can therefore be termed as a political philosophy word. However, women agitate for different things in the society depending on how the society treats the women and divide the roles.

According to Echols (1989), feminism began like a waveeuphoria and many women in America by the 18th century were out to defend their rights in political, social and economic imbalance in the society. During the revolutionary war of America, most women were neither counted nor allowed to vote and therefore were denied their fundamental rights and freedom hence leading to initiation of the first wave of feminism in 18th century through early 20th century.

This was because the women in America felt that they were dominated by men and the wave began as a result of the inequalities especially political inequality that denied them the right to vote and to express their opinion. In fact, most women were not allowed to participate in any form of leadership and were not counted during population censures.

Experiences of the First wave of 1950s and the Impact during the Second Wave
The move by the Women to oppose bad policies in their first attempt resulted to several notable changes both politically and socially. The community and the government began to realize the need to accommodate women in several activities. According to Freedman (2003), the movement expanded to different countries and some people especially women leaders from the United States like Elizabeth Cady and Susan Anthony diverted their interest in campaigning against slavery and started to champion womens rights, including the right to vote that they considered fundamental in proper governance.

The right to vote among women was not just abolished in America but was also practiced in Britain, the former colony of America. Most women from Britain came out strongly in opposing government policy on their voting rights. It is also worth noting that the first wave involved so many women leaders such as Lucy Stone, Hellen Pitts and Olympia Brown, all belonged to conservative Christian groups.

Second Wave of Feminism
As a result of the radicalism that was initiated by the women leaders second wave came in place and was more concerned with Gender inequality and culture. However, the need to seek for more freedom came as a result of the first wave. The second wave was marked by some eminent figures such as Simone de Beauvoir, who came with a slogan to portray women as less important in the society. The slogan, the other made many women to seek for equality and respect in the society.

According to Echols (1989), the second wave lasted for a long period from 1960s until towards the end of 1980s. Most people still believe that the second wave lasted for a longer period. Women scholars such as Betty Friedan wrote a book on the feminine Mystique that was passionate and opposed inequality and sexual harassment of women in America and some parts of the world.
During the second wave, feminists campaigned against cultural and political inequalities that were being embraced by the system and focused on the universal suffrage which became synonymous with the first wave but was more concerned with issues that could enable women realize their social and political rights and privileges.

Negative Impact of the Second World War on the Role of Women
As a result of the Second World War, most women were forced by circumstances to join industrial labor and abandoned the central role of women in the society. They were trained and equipped to play the new roles with an aim of changing their way of life. However, after the end of Second World War in 1945, most of the employers retrenched most of their workers and brought in men whom they believed could wok better as compared to women in the industry.

According to Hochschild (2003), the end of the war and the return of men made many women frustrated and replaced in their duties except the ones that were doing white color jobs that did not require a lot of energy. Some women that had already learnt how to operate the machines became frustrated since they were now forced to serve as second class workers who had no say. Some who became dissatisfied resigned and went back to their homes to do farming since the employers decided to under pay them as compared to men.

Why the lives of women become confined to the private sphere once again during the 1950s
After the end of Second World War, women life became so complicated as a result of the orientation they were given in the absence of their husbands. They played major roles in production and other formal duties that greatly influenced their way of thinking and working. They gained the same skills as men and felt that they were now equal with men since they argued that they could perform other roles apart from traditional roles as it was before the Second World War.

This made most of them to separate with their husbands and some started to fight for women freedom especially towards the end of 1950s when the second feminism movement was at its infant stage and the first wave was giving way for more women demands by agitating for equality in the society.

Why there was a backlash against the ideals of the second wave of feminism
The ideals that were being promoted by earlier feminists were replaced by the new Womens Rights Movement that was composed of liberals, radicals and moderate women who came out openly to defend the rights of women and equality. The movement began in early 1968 and gained momentum in 1970 just two years after its formation and surprised most people as they protested against Miss America pageant and towards the end of 1970, the women organized a major strike to seek for constitutional amendments, though the republican government was opposed to it.

As a result, most women that were Pro-life women resigned and organized feminists for life that was against the legislation opposing abortion. Even though the election of Richard Nixon was opposed by most feminists, according to Hooks (2000), Nixon was so passionate about the rights of women especially on employment he strongly supported Equal Rights Amendments and signed it into law in 1972.

The ideals were more relevant in ensuring that the fundamental rights and freedom of the women were achieved at the end. The major reason why most people especially men were against the idea of ensuring equality in the society especially during the second wave of feminism was because men were becoming more insecure and feared that their authoritative nature would be easily challenged by the women hence opposed the move to ensure equality in the society.

Aspects of an ideal Woman
During the liberation movement of 1964 when most women became more cautious on their rights and freedom from violation, they had specific objective to fulfill especially during the second wave of liberation. They wanted cultural transformation that could enable them enjoy other rights and freedom that they were denied by the constitution. The movement involved so many women from different race, color, sexual orientation and Nations.

Social Changes
 However, there has been tremendous changes that has taken place and the prime ideals that women were agitating for has changed gradually as the number of women divorcing their husbands is on the rise as a result of demanding equality and recognition in the society. To the advantage of most women especially from Western part of the world according to Gatlin (1987), they became more vocal in political views. As a result, their rights were realized both in the constitution and in the society thereby increasing equality in work place, enhancing reproductive rights and giving hope to the oppressed and hopeless women in the society. It is therefore true that feminism movement especially the second face made a lot of positive impacts in realization of equality rights and in ensuring that the rights of women is protected in the constitution.

Conclusion
The fight and demand for changes in roles and duties can be traced after the Second World War, when most women were lured to perform mens role in the industries making them to gain both economic and industrial power in the society. However, major changes in employment took place after the end of the Second World War, as they were replaced by men leading to the formation of feminism movement to fight for equality in different sectors such as wages, recruitment and respect. However, feminism ideals both in the first and second wave was full of radicalism and demands that could not be realized easily or implemented by the government leading to strike and demonstration. As a result, it made the government to realize the need for equality in different aspects for instance, employment amendment that was signed by President Richard Nixon in 1972. It is worth noting that the second feminism had a lot of impact in the society, as there was a positive shift of roles in several places, men felt their natural rights were being violated by women, leading to antagonism.

The end of World War II did not come with guaranteed peace. Tension still remained high between the Western world especially the United States and the Soviet Union and its satellite states. Both sides still wanted to maintain supremacy though they employed little or no military   action at all.

Cold War Ideology and Policies
You cannot mention the term cold war and fail to mention George Orwell who popularized the term long before World War II was over. He had warned of a situation of peace that is no peace, which would be characterized by people living in constant fear of nuclear attacks. He brought out this picture so clearly in the essay You and the Atomic Bomb which was published in the British newspaper Tribune on 19th October 1945.

The cold war was the ongoing state of political conflict, economic competition, proxy wars and military tension between the Western world especially the United states and the Soviet union and its satellite states. It would be worth noting that the key participants military forces never clashed directly officially but instead expressed conflict trough technological competitions for example the Space Race, military coalitions, extensive aid to states thought to be susceptible, calculated conventional force deployments ,propaganda, nuclear arms race ,espionage, proxy wars and economic  competitions.(Higgs,2006)

There was an open disagreement between the US and the USSR about the design of the world after the World War II with the main aim being occupying most of Europe. The US and some western European countries on one hand established containment of communism through establishment of alliances such as NATO as a defensive policy against the Eastern Bloc on the other hand. The Eastern Bloc was created by the Soviet Union with the Eastern European countries it occupied. It annexed some countries as Soviet Socialist Republics wile at the same time maintaining others as satellite states some of which would later form the Warsaw Pact. (Goldgeier, 2003)

The cold war gradually died from 1953 this is highly attributed to the death the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin. (Breslauer, 2002)

Q. Mr. Ford, the modern assembly lines and automobiles that are currently used in mass production owe you a lot. Can you tell us about your early life as engineer and machinist

A. Although I was born on a farm in Greenfield Township near Detroit, I despised farm work. What I loved in the farm was my mother, and when she died in 1875, I did not see a reason to stay in the farm any longer. This was against my fathers expectations as he expected I would take over the family farm left behind by mother. All along my early life, I had a dream of being an engineer or machinist. In my early teens my father gave me a pocket watch which inspired me more. At the age of fifteen years, I dismantled, and reassembled timepieces of neighbors and friends severally. This gave me a reputation of watch repairer from them. At the age of twenty years, I could walk to Episcopal church on Sundays about four miles away from our farm location. In 1879, I moved to the city of Detroit where I first worked with James F. Flower  Bros as apprentice machinist before I joined the Detroit Dry Dock Company.  In 1882, I returned home and worked on the family farm increasing the knowledge and skills to operate Westinghouse portable steam engine. This made the Westinghouse Company to hire me to service stream engines in the company.

Q. Mr. Ford, you are credited with the invention of automobile and assembly line. Are you the sole inventor of automobile and assembly line development in the world

A. No. Just as it is in other inventions, development of automobiles was made real by several inventors. By 1870s, the concept of developing a horseless carriage was very common, and .many people had attempted to develop steam-powered road vehicles.  I contributed to the technical success of these ideas, and in extending the ideas of road vehicles from using steam as source of power, to use of other sources of power such as internal combustion engine, and electric motors. Through out this invention process, I aimed at transforming the automobile paradigm from few, heavy and hand-built automobiles that were used by rich people only to mass-produced, reliable and lightweight mode of transportation that could be afforded by all working people. Concerning the invention of assembly line, there was a technology development in the 18th century that was characterized by the idea of interchangeable parts. I can only consider to have enhanced its significant success that was marked in the 19th century, because my initial assembly line that used conveyor belts was developed on 1st April 1918, after trials on subassemblies, and immediately after a trial on the entire chassis.

Q. Mr. Ford, why did you decide to dedicate most of your life to the industrial pursuits

A. The conscious decision to dedicate my life to industrial pursuit was signified in 1891 when I started working with Edison Illuminating Company. In 1893, I was promoted to chief engineer in the company. This gave me enough money and time to carry out personal experiments on gasoline engines.  The significance of my experiments came on 4th June 1896 when I completed and test-drove Ford Quadricycle - a self-propelled. The quadricycle was characterized by four wire wheels similar to wheels of heavy bicycles, and tiller as its steering. It had two forward speeds and no reverse. I test-drove the vehicle severally in order to brainstorm .how to improve it. In the same yea, I was introduced to Thomas Edison in during an Edisons executives meeting.  I was encouraged to build a second vehicle in 1898 by Edisons approval of my experimentation. I was backed by William H. Murphy to resign from Edison company, and on 5th August 1899, I founded Detroit Automobile company. The performance of the company did not meet my expectations as it produced low quality and expensive automobiles. The company failed and in 1901 I dissolved it.

Q. Mr. Ford, I understand Ford Motor Company is named after you. Tell us about the company. Did it realize your dreams

A. Ford Motor Company was established after failure of two attempts. Ford Motor Company was established by several investors. The company was incorporated in 1903. I was the chief engineer and vice president of the company. The company was located in Mack Avenue in Detroit, and the factory produced few cars a day. To enhance the productivity of the company, I initiated the wage motive.  In 1914, the wage rate of employees in the company increased by more than double. This was very profitable as the best mechanics in Detroit brought their expertise and human capital in the company. The cost of training was reduced, while the productivity increased significantly.
 I realized my dream of producing an efficient, reliable band reasonably priced automobile in 1908 with the invention of Model T, as it introduced a new personal transportation era. The vehicle was a huge success as it was easy to handle even on rough roads, maintain and operate. By the year 1918, most of the vehicles used in America were Model T. to meet the high demand for the cars a large factory was opened in Highland Park in 1910. in this factory, I combined standardized interchangeable parts, precision manufacturing and continuous moving assembly line and labor.

Q. Mr. Ford, what are your concerns about labor. And what are your opinions towards labor unions

A. I value efficiency in labor and low labor turnover. To me this means hiring and maintaining the best workers for the company. To emphasize on, competent workers I designed the welfare capitalism which involved providing welfare-like services to my workers as a way of improving them, and to reduce the heavy turnover in many departments. In 5th January 1914, I established and announced revolutionary program of 5 per day. This increased the minimum daily pay of qualified workers, and it reduced the workweek. This reduced the labor turnover in the company significantly.

Labor unions are unyielding. Unions are influenced by leaders who use their good motives to harm workers. The fact that unions restrict productivity as a way of creating employment is self-defeating to me because productivity is a necessity for economic prosperity.  To hinder union activities in the company, I authorized Bennett -the head of service department to squash organizing of unions through intimidation tactics.

Q. Mr. Ford, the World War occurred when your motor company had gained significant production momentum. What were your thoughts towards the War

A. I did not like the War as it was a waste of precious time of making things. I was critical to people who supported the War financially. I made all I could to stop people from financing the War. In 1915 the World War was raging in Europe. I funded a Rosika Schwimmmer peace ship to Europe. This involved other leaders. I also accompanied my Episcopalian pastor on his mission to preach peace. Although I talked with President Wilson, he did not give us government support in our mission, but we went ahead. I organized groups to meet peace activists in Netherlands and neutral Sweden. My efforts were ridiculed almost every where. During the peace mission in Sweden, I was the target of ridicule. This made me to leave the ship immediately after its arrival in Sweden. My efforts to stop war failed as the European nations continued to spread lies claiming that when the United states entered the War later in 1917, I took part and sold munitions.

Q. Mr. Ford, can you tell us about your international relations

A. I maintained a philosophy of economic independence for United States. River Rouge Plant - one of the pants in my company became largest industrial complex in the world.  Its vertical integration was so great that it was capable of producing steel for its own use. I aimed at producing a complete vehicle without relying on foreign trade, and to expand my company globally.  I advocate for international trade and cooperation as the keys to international peace.  In 1911, I established Ford assembly plants in Canada and Britain and in 1912 I launched the first automotive assembly plant in Italy through cooperation with Fiat and Agnelli.  In 1920s, I opened plants in Germany, France, India, and Australia such that by1929 dealership in six continents was a success. This made the commerce department and other leaders to buy my theory that international trade facilitated internal peace. By 31st may 1929, a technical agreement between Ford Motor Company, Soviet controlled Amtorg Trading Corporation and VSNH was signed. This allowed Ford Company to practice business activities in all nations that had peaceful diplomatic relations with United States such as Australia, Mexico, Britain, South Africa, Argentina, India, brazil, Europe and Canada. By 1932, a third of the worlds automobiles was being produces Ford Company.

Q. Mr. Ford, I understand you participated in racing sports. Tell us about your thoughts concerning racing sports.

A. From 1901-1913, I maintained an interest in auto racing. I was involved in the racing sport as a builder, driver, and hired driver. I finished first in the Model Ts races, covering 1.6 km and oval speed record at Fairgrounds in Detroit in 1909. I dropped pout of racing when the rules put me out in the Indianapolis 500.  although I was not satisfied by the rule, I racing was not a worthwhile activity, and a lot of my time was required by the booming production of Model T. I participated in racing because between 1890s and 1990s, many people thought racing was the only way an automobile could be proved worth. I was determined that if this was the only way to determine my success, I would race with all my cars to ensure they were the best in the racing thus the most worth cars in the world.
Q. Mr. Ford, apart from automobile company is there any other businesses that you ventured in
A. Yes. During the World war 1, I entered the aviation business. In the business, I built liberty engines which I returned to auto manufacturing before I owned the Stout Metal Airplane Company in 1925. Ford 4AT Trimotor that was characterized by corrugated metal construction was my most successful aircraft. I had made it from a new alloy (Alclad) of aluminum because it is resistant to corrosion and duralumin because it is a very strong metal. The plane flew in 11th June 1926 for the first time, and this marked the first passenger airplane to fly successfully in the United States. Trimotor accommodated about twelve passengers. Before the airline was discontinued in 1933, about two hundred Trimotors were already developed and in use. The Airplane company was closed in the great depression era as a result of poor sales. Institutions such as Smithsonian institutions honored me for my influence in transformation of aviation industry.

Q. Mr. Ford, tell us about the Dearborn independent for Ford.

A.   The Dearborn independent for Ford was a weekly magazine that was published by my closest aide and secretary from 1919 to 1927. The newspaper was characterized by its sensationalist content and publication of protocols of the elders of Zion. I negotiated to buy the newspaper in 1918 from Marcus Woodruff who was running the newspaper the previous years at no profit. The Historical Society of American Jewish considered the paper to be anti-Semitic, anti-labor, and anti-liquor, but I considered the protocols to align with that were happening during that period. I stopped printing the independent in 1927 after the organizer of Jewish farm and San Francisco lawyer brought me a libel lawsuit for making anti-Semitic remarks. The news at that time reported I was aware of the anti-Semitic remarks but I pretended to be shocked by the content. The truth is, I did not make the remarks, I did not approve for the publication and I was not informed on the content of the magazine. However, I apologized.

The Jungle is a novel by an American socialist and author Upton Sinclair published in 1906. It describes a family of Lithuanian immigrants who worked in the Union Stock Yards in Chicago at the end of the 19th century. The author exposes the poverty, lack social security, appalling living and working conditions, poor hygiene, and despair of the poor people working in the meatpacking factories. These conditions were caused by corrupt acts of the rich people. Sinclair describes the poor status of labor and he shows the need for change in the labor sector. He gives a description of workers falling into meat processing tanks and getting milled together with the parts of animals. The author reveals the exploitation of women and children in the factories, which attracted public attention.

The description of meatpacking factories as unclean places led to a decrease by half in meat sales to foreign markets. Consequently, main meatpacking factories wanted the government to pass legislation on food handling so as to cool down the public indignation and to show that their products of good quality. Thus, they wanted regulations to be passed for further meat inspection and to certify that the meat packed in American factories was clean. Together with the uproar from the public, the factories pushed for legislation and this led to the passing of Meat Inspection Act as well as the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906 (Sinclair, Lee  Degrave, 2003). Additionally, this resulted in the establishment of Food and Drug Administration. Even though the factories demanded for the legislation from the government, they were essentially against government regulation of their products.

Sinclair and President Roosevelt were the central figures in the passage of legislation of the food handling acts. The President had received copies of The Jungle, which made him made to send investigators to the factories. After investigations were carried out, the working conditions and the state of hygiene in the factories were found to be very horrifying. This instigated the need for food handling acts to deal with meat inspection and cleanliness of the meatpacking factories. Therefore, Sinclairs work exposed the mismanagement of meat in the packing factories and this led to the passage of legislation on food handling.

The process of disillusionment brought about by the Vietnam War portrays the creation of an identity and power of America towards conflict. Here, the trainings within the military encouraged the invulnerabilities and justified that every action resulted to victory. These dimensions within the perspective of American forces have shaped and encouraged optimism among forces during the Vietnam conflict. It is through such capacity that disillusionment is created which ultimately led to the countrys defeat and a shift in idealism and perspective regarding ones capabilities as it corresponds to the goals of America.

Tracing this analogy within Caputos work, it can be argued that the themes supplement the process of establishing disillusionment among personnel within the military organization and the American public. It opens up the idea that leads people to believe the capacity of the country to become soldiers of the world  protector of democratic interests. These idealism and ability to convey effective patterns of patriotism have shaped the creation and onset of the war in Vietnam. In particular it unified the country into believing in their capacity to safeguard and promote national interests abroad.

However, the process of disillusionment then becomes evident through time as both soldiers and America begin to experience the real war. Though the Americans may have boasted about their military capabilities and highly advanced level of warfare, it began to show another side of the conflict  that they only serve their purposes as mere instruments it is humans who fight the real war. All this time, Americans have thought about gaining victory by mere weaponry alone. The establishment of such mindset created the disillusionment that appropriate changes can be made by using mainly such strategies, however it was not. As Caputo argues, so I guess every generation is doomed to fight its war, to endure the same old experiences, suffer the loss of the same old illusions, and learn the same old lessons on its own (p. 81).

Similarly, Caputo also explores common misconceptions about the war that creates disillusionment. Here, he uses the example of the Vietnam War as an example of identifying the patterns of how victory cannot be achieved by machineries or military capabilities alone. Here, Caputo points out the lapses in judgment and prevalence of military error that stimulated defeat and catered to the realization about the realities of war and conflict. These dimensions in turn captivated a bitter truth about such outcomes and reinstituted the development of anti-war sentiments and a shift in American policy.

Seeing this, the book identifies that the disillusionment showcased in the Vietnam conflict provided a question about American capacity and ideals in resolving the conflict. It permeated within the collaborative struggles American forces had to endure to address and the limited capacity to bounce back from these ordeals. Here, Caputo makes this argument by providing,
Most of all, we learned about death at an early age, when it is common to think oneself as immortal. Everyone loses that illusion eventually, but in civilian life, it is lost in installment over the years we lost it all at once, and in the span of months, passed from boyhood through manhood to a premature old age (p.104).

Relating this idea with that of Morgans book, the idea of disillusionment with the Vietnam War came as a result of the considerable defeat and humiliation American forces have encountered during the duration of the conflict. It can be seen that the value prevails within the common conditions and superiority of mechanisms and strategies. Arguably, these distinctions were seen mainly as essential elements shaping victory. However, there were miscalculations within the Americans side which caused their embarrassing defeat. Seeing this, it created behaviors of resentment and the condition to lose public support related to the ability of the conflict to have a favorable conclusion.

Similarly, Morgan was also illustrated the limited capacity of American bureaucrats and law makers to understand the real depth of the conflict in Vietnam. In particular, it created a split between public opinion and those whose family members are participating in the war. Seeing this, it divided the nation accordingly and during times of heavy losses on the American side clamored for changes in policy and redefinition of appropriate goals that the country has to make. Here, Morgan argues that yet the sixties experience taught again and again that this is an unrealistic expectation that fueled painful disillusionment and self-defeating outburst of rage and violence (p.30).

Moreover, Morgan argued that the political and socio-economic trends happening in the sixties also provided situations for disillusionment. In particular, he uses the case of the Vietnam war as an important assumption of how this mindset was created. It can be seen that these trends go about the conditions of seeking new patterns and mechanisms that would address situations related to enhancing stability provided the economic and military capabilities of America within the 1960s. Such dynamics then provided the leverage to establish the proper way of handling issues and illustrating a new form of establishing control  thus for reinitializing the value of activism within American soceity. As Morgan argues,
The Sixties experience taught activists that their expressive democratic vision was fundamentally incompatible with the root assumptions of American institutions (p.9)

Lastly, the argument provided by Charters in her book outlines the value of Anti-War movement as a direct approach towards the disillusionment created by the Vietnam War. She uses this as an example to highlight the transformation of American society from a supportive public to a more critical viewpoint in addressing social and political concerns happening within the country. It portrays the eventual disengagement from the principles of overcoming the conflict victorious and shifts from identifying common ideas that equally shape their needs and democratic interests (Charters, p. 110).

Similarly, it can also be argued that Charters uses the Vietnam War as instrument in redefining the commitment of the American public towards its prevalent issues shaping American society. It tries to initialize the opposition and how patterns of disillusionment resulted to redefining their role in bringing stability to this turmoil and questions surrounding the validity of winning the campaign. As Charters provides, in the U.S., opposition to the Vietnam War continues to grow the larges antiwar demonstration to date occurs in a march of more than 20,000 people down to Fifth Avenue in New York City (p. 23).

These dynamics in turn initialized both a formal and informal response to disillusionment created by the Vietnam conflict. The book was able to transform this process in the establishment of civil rights and how American society responded to these areas accordingly. These indirect attacks on the U.S. government then resulted to the proliferation of antiwar literature. To illustrate these, one poet, Robert Bly points out,
The Vietnam War changed the way I lived the psychic urgency dissolved calmness for most of us, and actively opposing the war meant an end to long periods of solitude (p.129).

To conclude the disillusionment brought about by the Vietnam War coincided with the limited ability of U.S. military to address the real conditions happening in the conflict and mainly relying on their key strengths and supporting mechanisms. This complacency then resulted to a bitter realization about the outcome of the war. Though such may be the case, Charters and Morgans book illustrated the responses of the American public in clamoring for change. It brings about the desire to rethink new policies and strive towards establishing roles for individuals and groups in conveying appropriate messages for initializing change.

Abstract
The purpose of this research paper is to briefly describe the history of McIntosh Elementary School and how the school received the Frank W. Boykin. This research paper will explain the major changes that took place over the years. As an employee at McIntosh Elementary School, the knowledge I gained during the research process will help me understand, respect, and appreciate the changes, because these changes open doors for me.

In the late 1930 s and early1940 s, a little one-room building occupied the present day site of McIntosh Elementary. Not very well built, it was constructed of rough lumber, with cracks that had to be filled with batting, and painted white, that was the beginning of McIntosh School. The school is located in Southeast Washington County, Highway 43 North in a rural area outside of McIntosh city limits. Washington County ranks among the top four counties in Alabama for unemployment. Over the years the name of the school have changed several times.

In the year 1952, Olin and Geigy Chemical plants were constructed in the McIntosh community (1996-97 School improvement plan and report). The two plants brought in many new families and businesses. After 1952, the old building was torn down and two rooms were built, doubling the size of the school. Kitchen equipment and other supplies were obtained through the hard work of parents and community volunteers, as well as donations from Olin and Geigy Chemical plants.

On March 17, 1953 oil, gas, and mineral rights were leased to Frank W. and Robert M. Boykin, which included the location site of McIntosh School. Boykin played a very important part in the location of McIntosh School. He originally donated the land to the school. Later the school honored his gift by changing the name of the school from McIntosh School to Frank W. Boykin Elementary School.

Not only did Boykin make an impact on the McIntosh community but throughout the state of Alabama. He was born in Bladon Springs, Alabama, where he began school later his family moved to Fairford, a small town located outside McIntosh city limits. At the start of his career, he began working as a clerk in a store and later became the store manager. He relocated and moved to Malcolm, another small town located outside McIntosh city limits.

By the year 1905, Frank Boykin was engaged in the manufacture of railroad cross ties.  He later moved to Mobile, beginning his political career he served as a Democratic Congressman in Alabamas 1st congressional district from 1935-1963. Working in public service for many years, Rep. Boykin touched many lives alone the way. Although, the name has since been changed, Boykin portrait holds a permanent spot in the office of McIntosh Elementary School. His family still owns a large amount of land and fishing and hunting facilities near the school site.

As the community grew, so did McIntosh School. At first McIntosh was an all white school it was integrated in 1969. Mr. Tom Henson was the principal, the first black teacher hired was Mrs. Jettie Tolbert, and six black students attended the school that year, coming from the Sunflower community. In 1970-71, Mr. Barnes served as principal, and a new addition was added to the existing structure. In 1971, Mr. William Z. Wells became the first black principal of Frank W. Boykin Elementary School. He remained in this position until 1986.  During his first year as principal, the school enrollment increased to over 500 students. Under Mr. Well s leadership, two new wings were added to the school and portable buildings were also brought in to ease overcrowding.

The beginning school year of 1986-87, Mr. W. A. Taylor served as principal. He  was replaced by Mrs. Vera Dean, the schools first black female principal. She served from 1987 to 1998. During this time, approximately 200 students attended the school. Many changes had taken place over the years and the school now consisted of fourteen classrooms. Under the leadership of Mrs. Dean, the school was remodeled and reorganized. From these renovations came a computer lab, media center, P. E. room, first-aid room, teacher s workroom, science lab,counselor s office and a cafetorium. The grounds were landscaped and playground equipment was added. Teachers and students began to have access to a web of educational resources, such as audiovisual aids and equipment, on-line connection and educational television in the media center. In 1996, the school adopted the soaring eagle as their official mascot.

Under the leadership of Dr. Larry Turner, the school superintendent, major changes took place in the fall of 1998. As the result of these changes, several schools closed andor were merged with other schools. Frank W. Boykin Elementary School and Reed s Chapel Elementary School merged as one school, closing Reed s Chapel with all the students attending the Frank W. Boykin facility. The school was renamed Boykin-Reed s Chapel Elementary School. Boykin-Reed s Chapel serves a diverse, multicultural population, coming from many small communities in the southern part of Washington County. These communities are Calvert, Fairford, McIntosh, Malcolm, Reed s Chapel, Sims Chapel and Topton. All these communities are located within a 15-mile radius of the school. Approximately one hundred percent of the students are eligible to be transported to school, and eighty-four percent of the students participate in the child nutrition free and reduced lunch program.
 
When the two schools merged, Mrs. Vera Dean retired and Dr. Lebaron Byrd, the principal of Reeds Chapel,  became the principal at Boykin-Reeds Chapel. Under Dr. Byrd s leadership, the portable classrooms was replaced with a new addition, consisting of four classrooms, a new teacher workroom, restroom facilities, a special education room, Indian education room, computer lab, and three resource rooms. New programs were added on, such as Indian Education and the Migrant Program. The Migrant program is designed to help families who have to travel wherever they can find work. This work mainly consists of agricultural or fishing employment. Some students have to withdraw from school as early as April and start school as late as September. Also new to the school were  three Indian education aides, a reading coordinator, reading specialist, language pathologist, inclusion teacher, migrant aide, along with expanded technology an activity building. At the end of these renovations, there were now 23 classrooms.

In 2003, the name of the school was changed to its present name McIntosh Elementary School. The mascot was changed from the soaring eagles to the timber wolves. Dr. Byrd retired in the year of 2006 and Ms. Edna Billingsley became the new  principal of McIntosh Elementary School.  Under the leadership of Ms. Billingsley the schools facilities were again improved upon. Upgrades have been made to improve technology for the campus. Ms. Billingsley wrote several grants to open after school programs to assist students needs. These grants are The Food Bank, After School Program, Tutoring, Faucet, and the Fruit Grant. Although, the school started in a one room building, it have never stop growing, and students have never stopped learning.

Out of this Furnace is a novel by Thomas Bell.It talks about the life of immigrants in the United States in the mid-1880s which was a time when the long depression has started. The depression caused an economic recession in most places so that people tried to find ways in order to better their lives, even if that meant crossing borders and leaving their families behind. Along with the depression however, came the industrial revolution of the United States. The United States, being in an era of industrial revolution had a lot of jobs to fill. It was just fitting that migrants would choose to go to the United States for the opportunity it presented. What the migrants did not know was that, even with the opportunity, life would not be easy. This novel relates just how 3 family generations of Slovakian immigrants found their place in their new country, struggled to survive economic and racial issues and finally learned what it meant to be called Americans. Their story is narrated in four parts and through the point of view of four main characters namely, George Kracha, Mike Dobrejcak, Mary Dobrejcak, and Doby Dobrejcak.

The novel starts with the first part with the story of George Kracha and his journey to the United States. He temporarily leaves his wife in order to set out a new and better life for them in a land of opportunity. Many migrants believed that when they get to the United States, they would become rich asevidenced byGeorges statement, Who knows We may all be millionaires by then (Bell). His journey allows him to meet a girl named Zuska that he would later engage in an extra-marital affair with. He arrives in New York and heads to Pennsylvania to work on the railroads and then in the steel mills until he finally starts his own business. Just as his life was about to be more prosperous, he engages in an extramarital affair with Zuska who he meets for the second time in his shop. He continues his affair even with the knowledge of his wife who was already with him in the United States. This causes his customers to find other shops and finally causing Georges business to fail. George then turns into alcohol for his troubles and ends up a drunkard. His extramarital affair with Zuska ends and his wife eventually succumbs to death.

The Second part talks about Mike Dobrejcak, the husband of George Krachas daughter, Mary. Mike is a contrast of George Kracha in that he is set in making his life better and hopes more for himself than what he already has. He pursues to have a bit of education and is able to read and write English. He has aspirations of becoming a full-pledged American, without the oppression of being a Hunky. He was a man of hope and could have been the main protagonist of the book unfortunately, the chapter ends with his untimely death.

Mary Dobrejcak then becomes the center of the third part. After mourning for her husbands death, she and her daughter Pauline catches tuberculosis and are sent to a sanitarium. The last chapter ends with her and daughter Paulines death and finally, the last part centers on Dobie Dobrejcak. Dobie Dobrejcak is Mary and Mike Dobrejcaks son. Here he emerges as the successful protagonist. He leaves the mills and sets out to Detroit. He learns the ropes and forms ideas regarding labor issues and becomes involved in setting up unions for the mills. This marked a changed in the lives of the immigrants in the steel mills. Dobie becomes successful with his vision and eventually lives the American dream, earning his right to be fitly called an American.

The novel is a compelling story of the life of immigrants in the 1880s yet it is also effective in helping people understand the era. It provides a good look at the way of life in those times, either in the sense of industrial or economic states. The 1880s marked an industrial revolution in the United States which was the reason for the mass migration of people from other countries. This migration of people allowed for the running of the industries with cheap labor. Migrants, just like in the novel, agreed to work on railroads and steel mills even with low wages. Low wages were the result of the continous presence of workers to fill positions in industries. The novel also illustrated the evolution of steelworkers unions which in the real world, involved a long process of strikes and even deaths. The last part must be the chunk of history as Dobie helped establish unions and was successful with that endeavor. In history, worker unions gained success in achieveing their desired wages andthe era ends with the establishment of the US Department of Labor which acts as a mediator in labor-related disputes. Another form of oppression which is also displayed in the novel is the issue on racial discrimination which is still present, though at a minimum in this time. The novel relates the struggle of oppression attributed to race and is very effective in raising awareness of the issue. Racial discrimination has also played a big part on the history of the United States.

In conclusion therefore, the novel is an effective tool in understanding the era whether in the economic, industrial, or racial aspects. Readers become drawn to the story and grasp history at the same time. Itis a form of entertaining yet historicalnovel and that adds to the books appeal as an effective and convincing form of historical text. The characters come into terms with their problems, achieve their dreams of living the American life and become fitly called an American. These events unfold and coincide with the progression of the historical events that happened in that era. In order to blendthe story with the exact events of that time successfully, some distortions may have been made but these mishaps are overshadowed by the depiction of true events, such as the Homestead steel strike.

The most effective style that was used here was to intertwine historical events with the personal lives of people in that time. The ethos of the times is clearly shown in the thoughts and actions of the characters involved. Thus making the rendition and the drama together with the historical events easily stick to the memory of the readers.Bell, Thomas. Out of this Furnace. University of Pittsburgh Press, 1976.