American History

After the English North American colonies declared their independence in 1776, the conventional interpretation was that there were 13 little sovereigns (states) wielding power over their citizens. So, after winning independence and with a rewritten constitution, the new nation had to unify itself, put its ideals into practice, and form a stable United States. Needless to say, the early national period in America was overfilled with political, economic and social confusion. Little sovereigns found it difficult to harmonize their attitudes toward various aspects of political and social life. Simultaneously, it was the early national period that set the stage for the development of sound political, educational, and social frameworks. Given the relevance of religion and the growing role of education in the early American states and taking into account the impact which opening borders and immigration produced on the speed and quality of the national development, education, religious deregulation, and immigration can be fairly regarded as the three major influences that predetermined what the American states would become.

The Early National Period and religion
Throughout the colonial period in America, religion had been the source of the major controversies and one of the most serious social influences. The revolution and the subsequent formation of the United States shifted the emphasis from religion as the tool of ruling and governance to religion as an effective and never changing companion of the major social, political, and economic processes in America. More importantly, the early national period was associated with the gradual deregulation of religion and with the growing diversity of religious attitudes and beliefs  the diversity, which opened the way to religious inclusiveness and tolerance and predetermined the religious landscape of the modern America.

It is difficult not to agree to Noll in that that period was one in which American evangelicalism became increasingly commercial in its methods. The disestablishment of religion, which occurred in most states around the time of the Revolution but not until the first third of the nineteenth century in parts of New England, opened up a nationwide free marketplace in religion. In other words, it was due to the Revolution and the establishment of the new, independent American state that the deregulation of religious beliefs resulted in the subsequent multiplication of various religious sects and increased church membership.

Whether such multiplication of religions and sects was beneficial for America is difficult to define, but it was clear that since the earliest years of the American nation, such multiplicity have been governing the major social and cultural processes in society, turning religious diversity and tolerance into the basic features of the American democratic vision. In many aspects, what happened to religion during the early national period made churches and sects adjust their principles and standards to those of the conventional marketplace the growing level of religious competition led churches and sects to assume the need for improving their competitiveness and attracting retaining additional members this, however, was not possible without making churches dynamic, adaptable, and growing. As a result, religious deregulation in the early American state not only predetermined the role of religious diversity and tolerance in the system of the democratic beliefs, but also aligned religion with the principles of commercial and industrial expansion, and thus turned religion into an indispensable component of daily life in America.

The early national period and education
Religion alone would have been failed speed up the major democratic processes in America and that was a unique combination of religion and education that helped the first thirteen colonies to gradually expand and grow into a solid political power. Education during the early national period was still in its infancy, but under the influence of Thomas Jefferson education became the national priority for the years ahead in its current state, America votes for universal education and positions education and enlightenment as the basic sources of democratization in the country. Thomas Jefferson is fairly regarded as the founder of the modern elementary education which, for Jefferson, was more important than higher education on the premise that it was safer to have the whole people respectfully enlightened than a few in a high state of science and many in ignorance as in Europe. Jefferson was confident that primary education was the necessary source of enlightenment and set the six objectives for primary education as the tool of growing an informed and a productive voter (1) to provide every citizen with the information needed for the transaction of his own business (2) to enable every citizen to calculate, to express and preserve ideas and accounts in writing (3) to improve citizens morals and faculties through reading (4) to help citizens understand their duties, competencies, and functions (4) to help citizens know their rights and exercise these with order and justice and (6) to support citizens in their desire to observe with intelligence and faithfulness the quality of social relationships, within which they have to exist. As such, universal education became inseparable from the vision of democratic citizenship in America, and it is not surprising that led by those principles, Americans were able to establish one of the most efficient and professional systems of education in the world.

The early national period promoted the need for primary education to be public, accessible, and free those became the basic standards of the modern educational system in America. Although Jeffersons influence on the development and implementation of the current educational networks was not overwhelming, he was the one to change the direction of formal education development in the country. The establishment of the University of Virginia by Jefferson became the starting point in the United States movement to educational and social highs.

The early national period and immigration
Immigration is another major influence, which predetermined what America would become. Immediately after the Revolution, America became accessible and available to thousands of European immigrants, which predetermined its fate as of increasingly diverse society. The colonial years had been marked with the growing restrictions on immigration and the peer control of the colonial authorities over the quality and effectiveness of the labor force, but the Revolution made it possible to ease the existing immigration constraints since 1790, citizenship was available to everyone after two years of residence in the American territory, and only in 1798 was that term extended to require 14 years of residence as the necessary precondition for obtaining the American citizenship. The influence of those trends on the future of America was two-fold on the one hand, by opening its borders to immigrants, the American state became one of the most diverse and the most inclusive societies in the modern world on the other hand, by setting the rigid standards of citizenship, America initially positioned itself as the country that closed itself to low-quality labor force and illegal immigrants. Present day America is well-known for the strict requirements, which it imposes on those, who seek to become its citizens, but everyone who is willing to work for his own benefit and for the benefit of the American nation is welcome to become its part.

Conclusion
The early national period set the stage and conditions for the development and growth in America. In many aspects, the earliest political and social trends determined what America would become in future. It would be fair to assume that religion (or rather, religious deregulation), education, and immigration became the three major source of influence on the speed and direction of the social, economic, political, and cultural development in America. Those three influences created conditions necessary for the American state to become the major carrier of democratization in the whole world.

Eisenhowers plan for D Day was to fully control the seas and the air as such the date of the invasion was initially set for early May however was changed till June due to the fact that more landing crafts were not available. This was to ensure that the allied troops would be able to overwhelm the Germans stationed at Normandy. The plan of attack was to initially bombard the German positions with artillery as well as bombs from the air to ensure than a sea based invasion wouldnt be beset by an entrenched German defense.  Eisenhower set D- Day for June 5th however didnt order the invasion till June the 6th. This was due to the fact that at the time severe weather conditions would make it difficult if not highly improbable to launch an invasion force. Even German commanders at the time relaxed since even they thought that no invasion would come. Eisenhower learning from history did almost exactly what George Washington did when he crossed the frigid Delaware. With weather conditions far from optimal, with heavy raining beating down over the their ships he ordered the largest seaborne invasion in history taking the Germans by surprise.  2700 ships moved into position and on the morning of June the 6 they approached the French coast. The German forces were caught by surprise rather spectacularly when a massive naval barrage and fighters dropping bombs reduced their forces and lowered resistance. One beach though, Omaha was able to escape severe bombardment.

The taking of the 5 beaches
The battle of Sword beach started out with an aerial bombardment of the German beach front defenses and artillery sites, which was followed by a naval bombardment to soften up any remaining German troops. Sword beach was invaded by British and French infantry troops with the goal of taking two locations two German batteries which overlooked the sea and a blockhouse as well as the Casino (not a literal casino).
The targets were successfully taken by French troops over time however the German batteries which were the main goal of the British troops were devoid of guns which were stripped off by the retreating Germans.
The battle of Juno beach consisted of Canadian forces having to face 2 heavy batteries of 155mm guns and 9 medium batteries of 75mm guns. Not only that the Germans were heavily entrenched in concrete fortifications with machine gun artillery. The initial waves that attacked suffered a lot of damage however with the use of tanks the troops were able to successfully penetrate inland and capture the fortifications.

At Gold beach the fighting was equally as intense and the casualties were numerous however this was due to the fact that the same type of tanks used at Juno beach were not immediately available due to delays this of course resulted in numerous casualties until the tanks finally arrived and the troops were able to successfully capture the village on the beach used by the Germans as a makeshift fortification.

The battle of Utah beach was the one which resulted in the least casualties out of all the beach landings due to the fact that it was lightly defended, had few fortifications and was easily taken as a result.

During the battle of Omaha beach the main objective of the Allies was to secure a beachhead which was between Port en Bessin and the Vire River it should have been simple enough however problems besieged the Allies from the start of this particular battle. The land craft missed their targets resulting in problems with formation. The defenses in the area were unexpectedly strong as it turned out Omaha was the most well defended beach that was able to escape a majority of the bombardment from the ships and the planes. resulting in numerous casualties on the American side not only that engineers were also offloaded sometimes with their tools in the wrong area resulting in them getting stuck in the sand which made them sitting ducks for German Artillery. This logistical nightmare resulted in the deaths of some 5,000 men since due to errors with the coordinates as to where to land as soon as the transports hit the beach they were beset by German artillery. However due to the efforts of American troops who were able to take two isolated footholds on the beachhead the subsequent waves were able to take advantage of this and eventually captured the beachhead within 3 days.

Taking of Port du Hoc
At Pointe du Hoc in area four miles west of Omaha Beach, the Germans had erected a fortified position for a coastal battery of six 155-mm howitzers that were seized from the French  four guns were in open emplacements and two were enclosed in cases, with further construction work on cases reported under way in April and May. This battery was one of the most dangerous elements in the German coastal defenses of the assault area. With a 25,000-yard range, the 155s could put fire on the approaches to Omaha Beach and on the transport area of the soldiers.

The Ranger Group, attached to the 116th Infantry and commanded by Lt. Col. James E. Rudder, was given the mission of capturing Pointe du Hoc and neutralizing the dangerous German coastal battery. The Group was made up of two battalions the 2d Rangers, under direct command of Colonel Rudder, and the 5th Rangers, under Lt. Col. Max F. Schneider. Three companies (D, E, and F) of the 2d Battalion were to land from the sea at H Hour and assault the cliff position at Pointe du Hoc. The main Ranger force (5th Battalion and Companies A and B of the 2d) would wait off shore for signal of success, then land at the Point. The Ranger Group would then move inland, cut the coastal highway connecting Grandcamp and Vierville, and await the arrival of the 116th Infantry from Vierville before pushing west toward Grandcamp and Maisy.

The soldiers were tasked to scale a 30 meter cliff wall using nothing but ropes and ladders and then subsequently destroy  the German coastal defense guns which were thought to target the Omaha and Utah landing areas. The commanders of the Ranger group did not know at the time that the guns had been moved before the attack would take place as such they had to go further inland to locate them. They were successful in their missions and were able to destroy the guns however the fortifications in the area were vital positions since a single German observer in the area could have radioed in the positions of targets on the beaches for German artillery to aim at. The result was that the Rangers had to dig themselves in and capture the fortifications and hold the positions to ensure that no one could use them. The troops stationed there had to fight for two straight days to hold the position losing a majority of the force however they were successful and prevented any German spotters from using the location to call down artillery on the arriving troops and ships.

101st and 82nd  Airborne Drops
On June 5-6, 1944, the paratroopers of the 82nds three parachute infantry regiments and reinforced glider infantry regiment boarded hundreds of transport planes and gliders and, began the largest airborne assault in history. They were among the first soldiers to fight in Normandy, France.

The division dropped behind Utah Beach, Normandy, France between Ste Mere-Eglise and Carentan on June 6th, 1944. They were reinforced by the 325th GIR the next day. The division remained under strong German pressure along the Merderit River. Eventually, the 325th GIR crossed the river to secure a bridgehead at La Fiere on June 9th. It was during this action that Pfc Charles N. DeGlopper single-handedly defended his platoons position and subsequently was awarded the Medal of Honor for his heroism.

The next day the 505th PIR captured Montebourg Station and on June 12th the 508th PIR crossed the Douve at Beuzeville-la-Bastille and reached Baupt. They established a bridgehead at Pont lAbbe on June 19th. The division then attacked down the west coast of the Cotentin Peninsula and captured Hill 131 on July 3rd. The following day the 82nd seized Hill 95 overlooking La Haye-du-Puits.

By the time the All-American Division was pulled back to England on July 13, 1944, General James M Gavinit had seen 33 days of bloody combat and suffered 5,245 paratroopers killed, wounded or missing.

The US 101st Airborne Divisions mission was to secure four exits across the marshland near the coast for the invading US 4th Infantry Division at Utah beach.  These causeways needed to be secured because on each side of the exits, it was flooded several feet deep in places.  The 101st also were tasked to destroy two bridges over the Douve and to capture the La Barquette lock just north of Carentan.  The lock controlled the water height of the flooded areas and it was essential that it be captured.

It was in November 1943 when the allied troops finally landed in Morocco and Algeria for the operation torch. These landings combined with the lieutenant general Bernard Montgomerys triumph during the Second Battle of El Alamein positioned Italian and German troops in Libya and Tunisia in a shaky state. In an attempt to avert the forces which were under Field Marshal Erwin Rommel from being eliminated, backups were immediately transferred from Sicily to Tunisia. On November 8, 1942, the military forces of the United States and United Kingdom initiated an operation against the French North Africa particularly the French-controlled territories in Morocco and Algeria. The landing, which was referred to as Torch, mirrored the consequences of long, contentious disagreements between American and British planners regarding the prospected course of an Allied strategy. The arguments were at last stilled by the intercession of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the American president. In a direct and indirect logic, the impact of Operation Torch was gigantic on the course of Anglo-American strategy throughout the rest of the war it could have become the most imperative strategic resolution that the Allied leaders would make. Actually this operation inevitably deferred the landing in France till 1944 though at the same time it also allowed United States to finish the mobilization of its huge manpower and industrial resources for the titanic air and ground battles that described the 1944 Allied campaigns.

The onset of the war
The fighting in Kasserine Pass started in 1942, December when the Tunisia -German commander- Jurgen Von Arnim of the German V Panzer Army initiated an attack west as an effort towards linking up with the army of Rommel which was retreating from southern Tunisia and Libya. Arnims goal was to control Dorsale which is a mountain range is extending southwards from Tunis. In so doing, Arnim would also be able to rule over the mountain passes which restricted movement via east of Dorsale. If he accomplished this, Arnim would push Eisenhower to using passes like the pass at Kasserine. Kasserine pass used to be further south. As a result, the Eisenhowers men would be pushed further from their supplies and at the same time let Rommel and Arnim combine together their forces. Theoretically, the north Africa Axis forces should have gone at a loss mainly due to the inability of Germans to sufficiently supply their individual forces. However, they had a big advantage in comparison to the Allies since they had a command structure which was much unified it was absolutely clear who was in command of German forces in Tunisia. However, the Allies were in a total mess

Theoretically, Eisenhower had total power over the Allied forces. Conversely, he was stationed in Algiers which is 400 miles further from the battle front in Tunisia. Eisenhower selected Major-General Lucien Truscott as his area representative. Truscott also stationed himself at Constantine, another 200 miles away from the forefront. The real daily command was done by General Sir Kenneth Anderson (Lieutenant), the commander of the first British Army. Anderson faced great difficulty. A fraction of his force- the Nineteenth French Corps headed by Koeltz, could only take his orders from a commanding officer of French forces, General Alphonse Juin. Juin in turn got his instructions from General Henri Giraud. The French were still bitter about the attack by the British on Mers el Kbir. Attempting to calm down the French, Anderson Kenneth had wished to give them sectors in Tunisia save for the circumstances in the area which did not permit him to accomplish this. Andersons condition worsened because he never went along with the superior American commanding officers attached to his own force. They found him to be aloof and cold. The II United States Corps was headed by Major General Lloyd Fredendall. He had an individual hate for Anderson Kenneth and he had some confidence in the Koeltzs men.

On January 1943, Arnim invaded the French places with huge success. Eisenhower decided to remove the French troops to places in the backside and substitute them with lately arrived troops from American. Prior to this, Arnim hit again on 30th January and assaulted more French troops and succeeded equally. By February 1943, he had acquired his bridgehead in Tunisia and at the same time gave Rommel a protected enclave. By February, Arnim authorized approximately 100,000 men, and Rommel had about 70,000 men within his charge. In entirety, the Allies had approximately 150,000 men in the entire region.

On 4th February, Rommel recommended to Arnim that he ought to carry on with his hostile attacks on the Allies whereas Arnim would do likewise further south. During this time, the Nazi Germany had been shocked by the surrender of German VI Army at Stalingrad. Subsequently a chief conquest in North Africa could go far in restoring this defeat. Furthermore, following a withdrawal in North Africa, a triumph would reinstate Rommels reputation, particularly because he had realized that he would be taken back to Germany due to ill-health. Then all of a sudden, and in a way not fully known still, Allied acumen informed Anderson that they were precisely aware of what Rommel and Arnim were planning to do, a main assail against the French which could afterwards let them to attack the British. Therefore, the French were commanded to pull out their men from their positions. This further spoiled Anglo-French military relationship since Koeltz never wanted to withdraw his men before engaging in a fight.

On February 14th, the Germans attacked during a sandstorm. They quickly destroyed forty four American tanks, twenty six artillery guns and twenty two trucks. Anderson believed that the attack was a diversion to disguise an attack further north. Ironically, both Anderson and Arnim believed that any decisive battle would be fought much nearer along the coast of Tunisia, yet here they were fighting inland. They had to therefore initiate orders and troops to attack from the coast of Tunisia.

On 15th February, the Americans initiated a retaliate attack. By 17th February, they had already lost ninety eight more tanks, fifty seven semi tanks in addition to twenty nine artillery guns. While they withdrew, Americans on the other hand destroyed very important supplies except that the Germans were able to acquire critical five thousand gallons of aviation fuel in total. Rommel was instructed to attack Le Kef which was sixty miles north of Kasserine Pass. So as to invade this region, he was forced to move his troops via the Kasserine pass. General Alexander was allocated the authority over Andersons first Army along with Montgomerys eighth Army. General Alexander wobbled at the disorder he found in all regions that Allies controlled. He merely ordered for no withdrawals from whichever positions.

On 18th February, there was slight action on the frontage and this permitted the Allies to tense up their defenses. The coming of the ninth Artillery Division bolstered the morale in a great way. Between 19th and 22nd February, Rommel attempted to attain his goal - Le Kef. Nevertheless, he recognized that he had no means to initiate a consequential attack. Therefore, on   February 22nd Rommel authorized for the attack to be cancelled. His chief setback was the continuous lack of supply because men had already been withdrawn from the North of Africa to battle in Russian campaign. This had angered the Desert Fox and he pulled out from Kasserine Pass without the knowledge of the Allies who failed to pursue his retreat. Therefore, by 25th February the Kasserine Pass was under the control of the Allies. The Germans by now had been shoved back towards Eastern Dorsale.

Rommel had achieved a little elbow space in Tunisia, but he already had startled every Allied command centers inNorth Africa and taught them a good deal as regards to the art of battle. Considerable changes in preparation, doctrine, organization and weapons were as a result of this war.

The winners and losers
The battle in the Kasserine Pass eventually cost the Germans a total of 2,000 men in addition to approximately 10, 000 Allied soldiers, and 6,500 of who were Americans. Whereas the entire catastrophe had been forestalled, the Battle of Kasserine Pass was a very humiliating defeat to the United States forces. Their major foremost clash with Germans, the fight demonstrated an enemy dominance in practice and paraphernalia and exposed numerous faults in the American power structure and policy. After the battle, Rommel sacked American troops on the grounds of being ineffective and felt they did offer a threat to his command.

The second chapter Lights traces the history of New Yorks entertainment centers, from the old theaters of Broadway and Bowery, to the movies. New York has been and will probably always be a city of lights. Manhattan has been described as a theater complete with boxes and auditoriums and represents the social stratification of the city. Broadway had been the foremost center of entertainment. In the citys entertainment history, Broadway had been for the bourgeois it was expensive and catered to the entertainment interests of the elite where shows were typically Shakespearian.  At the opposite end, was a center of entertainment that catered to the masses, this was the Bowery Theater that provided cheap entertainment. The audience however was ill-mannered and was known to interact with the shows performance especially if it was not to their liking.

The Bowery endured for some time, and enjoyed different types of shows before it finally died out. The Bowery audience conformed to a type called the bowery bhoy and was epitomized in the serial Mose created by Edward Judson which enjoyed popularity for a number of shows. It was also in the Bowery that minstrels shows first came to being when a black-face minstrel entertained a rioting theater house. The mainstays of the Bowery were melodramas but it was soon replaced with less than stellar shows but high on special effects.  With the coming of Tony Pastor, the Bowery faced competition when he opened a theater with minstrelsy programs, cleaned up the theater and held raffles for the patrons. His success was marked when he moved uptown and started the trend of vaudeville. At around the same time, The Black Crook was showing in Broadway and could be identified as the first American musical wherein singers, dancers, ballet dancers and actors took turns in the stage. This trend opened the interest for light opera and eventually the burlesque which is song and dance with skin show.

The theater became a major industry in the late 1890s where Metropolitan Opera opened its doors for those who could not afford the Music Academy shows, which eventually killed the Academy after to years. At this time vaudeville was the new show and Broadway became a haven for actors, musicians, comedians, dancers, writers and producers. The Bowery was slowly dying and was paling in comparison to Broadway, the Bowery was saved by the influx of new audiences and actors most notably the Yiddish theater. Also, Bowery was enlivened by variety or the vaudeville but it was only a cheap imitation of the Broadway shows. At the Miners Theater however, amateur nights became one of the most attended shows wherein anyone who presented a talent would receive a dollar and prizes were given to the best performers. This show also produced the hook as a means of pulling out un-talented performers which spread to the whole theater industry.  Eventually, the Bowery became known for its dime museums and the kinetoscope parlors that housed the movies. Indeed, New York is a city of lights where entertainment has played a major role in the citys development and history.

Theodore Roosevelt was in every sense, the first modern president. He distrusted Congress and tried to undermine its powers at every turn. He justified the expansion of his powers in the name of national security. He won popularity by pursuing ruthlessly a tough guy image and an assertive foreign policy that glorified personal and presidential toughness. He was indeed the last romantic of the 19th century.

The youngest president, Roosevelt was perhaps the most knowledgeable person to hold that office. He was fond of reading treatises, biographies, poems, and political novels. Graphs, pie charts, and numbers were his specialty. For Roosevelt, the essence of being a president is being able to consolidate technique and number. This, according to him, is the basis of domestic policies. Indeed, the contour of policy making not only depended on personal wit but also on political urgency.

When Roosevelt took office, the federal government was just recovering from the injuries of the Civil War (succeeding William McKinley). Industries were beginning to develop in urban centers. Manufacturing firms began to implement mass recruitments. Indeed, an air of prosperity entered the nostril of the common man. These developments posed problems for the American economy. It needed new markets outside the bounds of the West. There was also a growing internal capital flows from Europe to America. If the United States wanted to lead the West towards economic development, it must increase its labor force. Capital flows can only be efficiently utilized if there is a large labor market. Here comes immigration. Roosevelts large policy was aimed essentially in increasing the productive capacity of the country and maintaining high tariff rates. Roosevelt aimed for the enlargement of the countrys domestic market  a prelude to overseas market expansionism.

A rousing activist, he delivered a 20 000 word address to Congress in December 2001, asking the august body to curb the power of large corporations (called trusts). A politician remarked, what a trust-buster Trust-buster indeed, President Roosevelt stirred the nation with his sense of pride and patriotism.
A man of a house, as one senator said, Roosevelt loved the presidency. He took cabinet members on long, dangerous hunts. He was well-versed in boxing and other forms of physical endeavor. In fact, he was blinded in one eye during one of his boxing bouts. He enjoyed eating and conversations. Cabinet members were invited to dine and listen to his political ideas. He was thoughtful of grace  of the opportunity given to air his concerns.

In 1904, he ran for president and won a landslide victory. True as a romantic, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing the media personal interviews and photos. One day, when he saw White House reporters huddled by rain, he gave them their own rooms inside. Roosevelt essentially invented the presidential press briefing  the first in the history of the United States.

A staunch progressive, he was all determined to create what he called a square deal between business and labor. The president pressed for progressive legislation in the Congress. Indeed, Roosevelts presidency was the age of progressivism in the United States. In its epistemological sense, progressivism meant technical expertise  the use of science and technology to identify and solve the nations problems. Roosevelt himself, a trained biologist, believed that scientific method is a tool of progress. Progressivism had another side. In its ideological sense, progressivism means hatred of large corporations and fear of political organizations like unions and federations. Roosevelt knew the dangers posed by these organizations. He was determined to reduce their influence and set the tone towards a moralistic politics.

Roosevelts adamant firmness was indeed exhilarating. At one time, he threatened to send the army to take over the local mines during a strike, forcing the owners to negotiate with the union. He pressed for the creation of natural parks (known as the National Park System). While the Supreme Court struck down regulation, Roosevelt got Congress to expand federal regulations over the inspection of food and drugs. He purchased land for the construction of the Panama Canal. He sent an American force to occupy Havana without the authorization of the US Congress. He increased American naval presence in the Caribbean without the financial backing of Congress.

It is often the trait of the last romantic to treat war as if it were a kind of sport. He hosted negotiations that ended the Russo-Japanese War (he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize). He ended the guerilla war in the Philippines by offering magnanimous terms to the rebels. He persuaded Wilhelm Kaiser to defuse German battleships in South America. Indeed, Roosevelt was an advocate of international law and arbitration. He believed that, although war was a natural act, it is the duty of international law to regulate it.

The Last Romantic was a multifaceted dimension of American history and politics. At all time, he tried to be holistic and logical. Action and not inaction was his governing principle. It was not dedication to a set of strict moral laws which governed his mindset. It was dedication to greatness and political glorification. Here, his achievements continue to awe the spectators of the American nation.

According to Locke (1976), a bill of rights is a list of the rights that are considered important and essential by a nation or a state. The principle of these bills is to protect those rights against infringement by the government or the law breakers. The term bill of rights originates from Great Britain, where it referred to a bill that was passed by Parliament in 1689. In many governments, an official legal bill of rights recognized in principle holds more power than the legislative bodies.

A bill of rights, on the other hand, may be weakened by consequent acts agreed upon by the government, and they do not need an approval by vote to alter it. One of the important principles in declaration of independence is the concept of liberty that is more of political philosophy than just a theory. Liberty identifies the condition in which an individual has the right to act according to his or her own willpower. In feudal times, liberty and individual freedom were altered and abused by the ruling class. Liberty and freedom of an individual relates and when dealing with the bill of rights, it is worth noting that there are two types of rights the natural rights and the acquired rightsartificial rights.

According to John Lockes definition of a constitution, it is the fundamental law and that it determines the fundamental political principles of a government. It is the set of regulations which govern the conduct of non-political entities, whether incorporated or not. Such entities include corporations and voluntary associations (Locke, 1976).

What led to declaration in 1776
A few months before Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relationship between the colonies and the mother country had worsened after the end of the Seven Years War in 1763. The war had endangered the British government deep into debt, and so Parliament endorsed a series of measures to increase tax revenue from the colonies. It was therefore expensive to keep managing the affairs of the colonized states as a result of financial strain.

The declaration of independence came into reality a month after the congress selected a Committee of Five to draft a declaration to the world presenting the colonies case for independence. The committee consisted of John Adams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Livingston of New York and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. The committee delegated Jefferson the task of writing the original document for the approval. After slight alterations that were subsequently made by Franklin and Adams, the document was submitted to Congress for approval. On Monday, July 8, 1776, America was declared by the colonial government as Independent.

On analyzing the individual freedom and fundamental rights, it is essential to look into the provision of rights of an individual. In America today, liberty and fundamental rights of an individual has improved with a better percentage.Traditionally, there had been always a war of colorracial war to an extent of a black not being in a position to contest in a political position, something that has been challenged by the fact that Obama, a half cast and a black man is the current President of the United States.

It is important to note that the current Government under the leadership of President Obama has secured the rights of individuals by deriving the powers from the consent of the governed. It symbolizes the freedom of expression and proper representation of people in terms of policy modification. The American government is structured in a way that the principles and the bill of rights are organized in such a way that it does not affect safety and happiness. This can only take place if peace and security of the people are taken into consideration. It is always believed that mankind is more disposed to suffer. In the modern America, liberties of individuals are rarely abused since the government guards the rights and freedom of individuals. However, when the government ceases to protect its citizens, then there must always be a negative setback on the freedom of an individual (Edward, 1950).

The famous preamble of the declaration of independence was basically concerned with the individual provision of natural law. Natural law is therefore the ability of a people to assume political independence, and acknowledges that the positions for such independence must be rational, and therefore reasonable, and ought to be explained (Edward,1950).Looking at the current state of American Government, many opportunities has been created to support social programmes for individual development both locally  and internationally. On the contrary, most people especially the American youths have resolved to be non aggressive for the opportunities available thereby violating their own rights to access government opportunities.

Youths in America compared to other states have opportunities in academic scholarships and education that others do not due to Affirmative Action, yet many of them dont take these opportunities to pursue their objectives in life. According to Edward (1950), individual rights can be violated by hisher own self but majority blames it on the government. One has the freedomliberty to choose to work or not in any of the well-off countries in the world, but they choose not to be equal by theirblatant inaction andattitude of entitlement. These are the people who expect the new USPresident to pay their mortgages and their taxes for them while they wait for help.

Declaration of Independence therefore meant a lot to America rather than just freedom and bill of rights it meant that positive habits and personal individual effort was greatly important in the realization of freedomliberty of the NationState. Liberty can be classified in two categories positive liberty and negative liberty. It is important to understand that liberty is based upon deep-seated principles and not philosophies or policies. Principles, which are based on reality, are constant and timeless philosophies and policies are erratic and changing and are based upon theories, conditions and opinion. Again, liberty is not free. It must be both earned and guarded. Lastly, liberty requires public morality or benefit. However, threat to our liberty today results from the gradual erosion of good qualities.

Arnold Toynbee once argued that nations are born from the blood of immigrants  a satirical reference to Nietzsches concept of nation-state. The United States seems to suit this description. Before the arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century, the United States was essentially a wilderness inhabited by a large number of Indian tribes. The first English colonial settlements were crude, poorly built, and exposed to the elements of nature. Provision of commodities was very minimal. There were constant raids from the Indians. The French harassed the English from the North. Indeed, in the 17th century English colony, life was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short, as Hobbes would put it.

But, after the critical period of the 1730s, the Thirteen Colonies began to experience economic prosperity. Immigrant Puritans increased the population of low-density settlements. The Puritans brought with them capital and money for building religious communities. Trade increased rapidly as North American products were sold at high prices in the markets of Europe. The British parliament increased military funding to protect English colonies in North America from both the French and the Spanish. Military security propelled economic development. In less than 20 years, the Thirteen colonies became an economic powerhouse in the New World, rivaling New Spain in the West.

This relative prosperity led to population boom in 1750. Hofstadter argued that this population boom was due primarily to a realigning of the colonies needs and priorities. English goods were now allowed to enter the colonies without restrictions or quota. The colonists enjoyed the sensation of an English lifestyle.

In Europe, the New World was becoming more and more popular both to the merchants and members of the middle class. The merchants saw the New World as a source of opportunity and wealth. The middle class saw it as a relief to economic hardships. After the Puritan surge in the 1640s came immigrants from Western Europe. French, German, and Dutch migrants settled in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New Amsterdam. There was also a considerable number of Catholics residing in South Carolina and Georgia. After the Thirty Years War in Europe, immigrants from Eastern Europe first appeared in the ports of New Amsterdam. Most came from Hungary, Austria, and Poland.

Irish immigrants came in the 1750s, followed by Italian, Greek, and Spanish immigrants. In 1750, immigrants constituted about 22 of the total population, according to Hofstadter. The figure was continuously increasing by 5 yearly. America was becoming a continent of immigrants or as Hodstadter would put it, a council of nations with common law.

Hofstadters account is far from complete. He apparently failed to discuss relevant political and economic topics in the book. Some of the relevant topics which should have been discussed are as follows 1) colonial rivalry, 2) territorial divisions, 3) royal charters, 4) the establishment of the plantation system, and 5) taxes on import and export goods. The book though offers a creative account of the Thirteen colonies at the close of the 18th century.