American History

It was in November 1943 when the allied troops finally landed in Morocco and Algeria for the operation torch. These landings combined with the lieutenant general Bernard Montgomerys triumph during the Second Battle of El Alamein positioned Italian and German troops in Libya and Tunisia in a shaky state. In an attempt to avert the forces which were under Field Marshal Erwin Rommel from being eliminated, backups were immediately transferred from Sicily to Tunisia. On November 8, 1942, the military forces of the United States and United Kingdom initiated an operation against the French North Africa particularly the French-controlled territories in Morocco and Algeria. The landing, which was referred to as Torch, mirrored the consequences of long, contentious disagreements between American and British planners regarding the prospected course of an Allied strategy. The arguments were at last stilled by the intercession of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the American president. In a direct and indirect logic, the impact of Operation Torch was gigantic on the course of Anglo-American strategy throughout the rest of the war it could have become the most imperative strategic resolution that the Allied leaders would make. Actually this operation inevitably deferred the landing in France till 1944 though at the same time it also allowed United States to finish the mobilization of its huge manpower and industrial resources for the titanic air and ground battles that described the 1944 Allied campaigns.

The onset of the war
The fighting in Kasserine Pass started in 1942, December when the Tunisia -German commander- Jurgen Von Arnim of the German V Panzer Army initiated an attack west as an effort towards linking up with the army of Rommel which was retreating from southern Tunisia and Libya. Arnims goal was to control Dorsale which is a mountain range is extending southwards from Tunis. In so doing, Arnim would also be able to rule over the mountain passes which restricted movement via east of Dorsale. If he accomplished this, Arnim would push Eisenhower to using passes like the pass at Kasserine. Kasserine pass used to be further south. As a result, the Eisenhowers men would be pushed further from their supplies and at the same time let Rommel and Arnim combine together their forces. Theoretically, the north Africa Axis forces should have gone at a loss mainly due to the inability of Germans to sufficiently supply their individual forces. However, they had a big advantage in comparison to the Allies since they had a command structure which was much unified it was absolutely clear who was in command of German forces in Tunisia. However, the Allies were in a total mess

Theoretically, Eisenhower had total power over the Allied forces. Conversely, he was stationed in Algiers which is 400 miles further from the battle front in Tunisia. Eisenhower selected Major-General Lucien Truscott as his area representative. Truscott also stationed himself at Constantine, another 200 miles away from the forefront. The real daily command was done by General Sir Kenneth Anderson (Lieutenant), the commander of the first British Army. Anderson faced great difficulty. A fraction of his force- the Nineteenth French Corps headed by Koeltz, could only take his orders from a commanding officer of French forces, General Alphonse Juin. Juin in turn got his instructions from General Henri Giraud. The French were still bitter about the attack by the British on Mers el Kbir. Attempting to calm down the French, Anderson Kenneth had wished to give them sectors in Tunisia save for the circumstances in the area which did not permit him to accomplish this. Andersons condition worsened because he never went along with the superior American commanding officers attached to his own force. They found him to be aloof and cold. The II United States Corps was headed by Major General Lloyd Fredendall. He had an individual hate for Anderson Kenneth and he had some confidence in the Koeltzs men.

On January 1943, Arnim invaded the French places with huge success. Eisenhower decided to remove the French troops to places in the backside and substitute them with lately arrived troops from American. Prior to this, Arnim hit again on 30th January and assaulted more French troops and succeeded equally. By February 1943, he had acquired his bridgehead in Tunisia and at the same time gave Rommel a protected enclave. By February, Arnim authorized approximately 100,000 men, and Rommel had about 70,000 men within his charge. In entirety, the Allies had approximately 150,000 men in the entire region.

On 4th February, Rommel recommended to Arnim that he ought to carry on with his hostile attacks on the Allies whereas Arnim would do likewise further south. During this time, the Nazi Germany had been shocked by the surrender of German VI Army at Stalingrad. Subsequently a chief conquest in North Africa could go far in restoring this defeat. Furthermore, following a withdrawal in North Africa, a triumph would reinstate Rommels reputation, particularly because he had realized that he would be taken back to Germany due to ill-health. Then all of a sudden, and in a way not fully known still, Allied acumen informed Anderson that they were precisely aware of what Rommel and Arnim were planning to do, a main assail against the French which could afterwards let them to attack the British. Therefore, the French were commanded to pull out their men from their positions. This further spoiled Anglo-French military relationship since Koeltz never wanted to withdraw his men before engaging in a fight.

On February 14th, the Germans attacked during a sandstorm. They quickly destroyed forty four American tanks, twenty six artillery guns and twenty two trucks. Anderson believed that the attack was a diversion to disguise an attack further north. Ironically, both Anderson and Arnim believed that any decisive battle would be fought much nearer along the coast of Tunisia, yet here they were fighting inland. They had to therefore initiate orders and troops to attack from the coast of Tunisia.

On 15th February, the Americans initiated a retaliate attack. By 17th February, they had already lost ninety eight more tanks, fifty seven semi tanks in addition to twenty nine artillery guns. While they withdrew, Americans on the other hand destroyed very important supplies except that the Germans were able to acquire critical five thousand gallons of aviation fuel in total. Rommel was instructed to attack Le Kef which was sixty miles north of Kasserine Pass. So as to invade this region, he was forced to move his troops via the Kasserine pass. General Alexander was allocated the authority over Andersons first Army along with Montgomerys eighth Army. General Alexander wobbled at the disorder he found in all regions that Allies controlled. He merely ordered for no withdrawals from whichever positions.

On 18th February, there was slight action on the frontage and this permitted the Allies to tense up their defenses. The coming of the ninth Artillery Division bolstered the morale in a great way. Between 19th and 22nd February, Rommel attempted to attain his goal - Le Kef. Nevertheless, he recognized that he had no means to initiate a consequential attack. Therefore, on   February 22nd Rommel authorized for the attack to be cancelled. His chief setback was the continuous lack of supply because men had already been withdrawn from the North of Africa to battle in Russian campaign. This had angered the Desert Fox and he pulled out from Kasserine Pass without the knowledge of the Allies who failed to pursue his retreat. Therefore, by 25th February the Kasserine Pass was under the control of the Allies. The Germans by now had been shoved back towards Eastern Dorsale.

Rommel had achieved a little elbow space in Tunisia, but he already had startled every Allied command centers inNorth Africa and taught them a good deal as regards to the art of battle. Considerable changes in preparation, doctrine, organization and weapons were as a result of this war.

The winners and losers
The battle in the Kasserine Pass eventually cost the Germans a total of 2,000 men in addition to approximately 10, 000 Allied soldiers, and 6,500 of who were Americans. Whereas the entire catastrophe had been forestalled, the Battle of Kasserine Pass was a very humiliating defeat to the United States forces. Their major foremost clash with Germans, the fight demonstrated an enemy dominance in practice and paraphernalia and exposed numerous faults in the American power structure and policy. After the battle, Rommel sacked American troops on the grounds of being ineffective and felt they did offer a threat to his command.

The second chapter Lights traces the history of New Yorks entertainment centers, from the old theaters of Broadway and Bowery, to the movies. New York has been and will probably always be a city of lights. Manhattan has been described as a theater complete with boxes and auditoriums and represents the social stratification of the city. Broadway had been the foremost center of entertainment. In the citys entertainment history, Broadway had been for the bourgeois it was expensive and catered to the entertainment interests of the elite where shows were typically Shakespearian.  At the opposite end, was a center of entertainment that catered to the masses, this was the Bowery Theater that provided cheap entertainment. The audience however was ill-mannered and was known to interact with the shows performance especially if it was not to their liking.

The Bowery endured for some time, and enjoyed different types of shows before it finally died out. The Bowery audience conformed to a type called the bowery bhoy and was epitomized in the serial Mose created by Edward Judson which enjoyed popularity for a number of shows. It was also in the Bowery that minstrels shows first came to being when a black-face minstrel entertained a rioting theater house. The mainstays of the Bowery were melodramas but it was soon replaced with less than stellar shows but high on special effects.  With the coming of Tony Pastor, the Bowery faced competition when he opened a theater with minstrelsy programs, cleaned up the theater and held raffles for the patrons. His success was marked when he moved uptown and started the trend of vaudeville. At around the same time, The Black Crook was showing in Broadway and could be identified as the first American musical wherein singers, dancers, ballet dancers and actors took turns in the stage. This trend opened the interest for light opera and eventually the burlesque which is song and dance with skin show.

The theater became a major industry in the late 1890s where Metropolitan Opera opened its doors for those who could not afford the Music Academy shows, which eventually killed the Academy after to years. At this time vaudeville was the new show and Broadway became a haven for actors, musicians, comedians, dancers, writers and producers. The Bowery was slowly dying and was paling in comparison to Broadway, the Bowery was saved by the influx of new audiences and actors most notably the Yiddish theater. Also, Bowery was enlivened by variety or the vaudeville but it was only a cheap imitation of the Broadway shows. At the Miners Theater however, amateur nights became one of the most attended shows wherein anyone who presented a talent would receive a dollar and prizes were given to the best performers. This show also produced the hook as a means of pulling out un-talented performers which spread to the whole theater industry.  Eventually, the Bowery became known for its dime museums and the kinetoscope parlors that housed the movies. Indeed, New York is a city of lights where entertainment has played a major role in the citys development and history.

Theodore Roosevelt was in every sense, the first modern president. He distrusted Congress and tried to undermine its powers at every turn. He justified the expansion of his powers in the name of national security. He won popularity by pursuing ruthlessly a tough guy image and an assertive foreign policy that glorified personal and presidential toughness. He was indeed the last romantic of the 19th century.

The youngest president, Roosevelt was perhaps the most knowledgeable person to hold that office. He was fond of reading treatises, biographies, poems, and political novels. Graphs, pie charts, and numbers were his specialty. For Roosevelt, the essence of being a president is being able to consolidate technique and number. This, according to him, is the basis of domestic policies. Indeed, the contour of policy making not only depended on personal wit but also on political urgency.

When Roosevelt took office, the federal government was just recovering from the injuries of the Civil War (succeeding William McKinley). Industries were beginning to develop in urban centers. Manufacturing firms began to implement mass recruitments. Indeed, an air of prosperity entered the nostril of the common man. These developments posed problems for the American economy. It needed new markets outside the bounds of the West. There was also a growing internal capital flows from Europe to America. If the United States wanted to lead the West towards economic development, it must increase its labor force. Capital flows can only be efficiently utilized if there is a large labor market. Here comes immigration. Roosevelts large policy was aimed essentially in increasing the productive capacity of the country and maintaining high tariff rates. Roosevelt aimed for the enlargement of the countrys domestic market  a prelude to overseas market expansionism.

A rousing activist, he delivered a 20 000 word address to Congress in December 2001, asking the august body to curb the power of large corporations (called trusts). A politician remarked, what a trust-buster Trust-buster indeed, President Roosevelt stirred the nation with his sense of pride and patriotism.
A man of a house, as one senator said, Roosevelt loved the presidency. He took cabinet members on long, dangerous hunts. He was well-versed in boxing and other forms of physical endeavor. In fact, he was blinded in one eye during one of his boxing bouts. He enjoyed eating and conversations. Cabinet members were invited to dine and listen to his political ideas. He was thoughtful of grace  of the opportunity given to air his concerns.

In 1904, he ran for president and won a landslide victory. True as a romantic, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing the media personal interviews and photos. One day, when he saw White House reporters huddled by rain, he gave them their own rooms inside. Roosevelt essentially invented the presidential press briefing  the first in the history of the United States.

A staunch progressive, he was all determined to create what he called a square deal between business and labor. The president pressed for progressive legislation in the Congress. Indeed, Roosevelts presidency was the age of progressivism in the United States. In its epistemological sense, progressivism meant technical expertise  the use of science and technology to identify and solve the nations problems. Roosevelt himself, a trained biologist, believed that scientific method is a tool of progress. Progressivism had another side. In its ideological sense, progressivism means hatred of large corporations and fear of political organizations like unions and federations. Roosevelt knew the dangers posed by these organizations. He was determined to reduce their influence and set the tone towards a moralistic politics.

Roosevelts adamant firmness was indeed exhilarating. At one time, he threatened to send the army to take over the local mines during a strike, forcing the owners to negotiate with the union. He pressed for the creation of natural parks (known as the National Park System). While the Supreme Court struck down regulation, Roosevelt got Congress to expand federal regulations over the inspection of food and drugs. He purchased land for the construction of the Panama Canal. He sent an American force to occupy Havana without the authorization of the US Congress. He increased American naval presence in the Caribbean without the financial backing of Congress.

It is often the trait of the last romantic to treat war as if it were a kind of sport. He hosted negotiations that ended the Russo-Japanese War (he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize). He ended the guerilla war in the Philippines by offering magnanimous terms to the rebels. He persuaded Wilhelm Kaiser to defuse German battleships in South America. Indeed, Roosevelt was an advocate of international law and arbitration. He believed that, although war was a natural act, it is the duty of international law to regulate it.

The Last Romantic was a multifaceted dimension of American history and politics. At all time, he tried to be holistic and logical. Action and not inaction was his governing principle. It was not dedication to a set of strict moral laws which governed his mindset. It was dedication to greatness and political glorification. Here, his achievements continue to awe the spectators of the American nation.

According to Locke (1976), a bill of rights is a list of the rights that are considered important and essential by a nation or a state. The principle of these bills is to protect those rights against infringement by the government or the law breakers. The term bill of rights originates from Great Britain, where it referred to a bill that was passed by Parliament in 1689. In many governments, an official legal bill of rights recognized in principle holds more power than the legislative bodies.

A bill of rights, on the other hand, may be weakened by consequent acts agreed upon by the government, and they do not need an approval by vote to alter it. One of the important principles in declaration of independence is the concept of liberty that is more of political philosophy than just a theory. Liberty identifies the condition in which an individual has the right to act according to his or her own willpower. In feudal times, liberty and individual freedom were altered and abused by the ruling class. Liberty and freedom of an individual relates and when dealing with the bill of rights, it is worth noting that there are two types of rights the natural rights and the acquired rightsartificial rights.

According to John Lockes definition of a constitution, it is the fundamental law and that it determines the fundamental political principles of a government. It is the set of regulations which govern the conduct of non-political entities, whether incorporated or not. Such entities include corporations and voluntary associations (Locke, 1976).

What led to declaration in 1776
A few months before Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relationship between the colonies and the mother country had worsened after the end of the Seven Years War in 1763. The war had endangered the British government deep into debt, and so Parliament endorsed a series of measures to increase tax revenue from the colonies. It was therefore expensive to keep managing the affairs of the colonized states as a result of financial strain.

The declaration of independence came into reality a month after the congress selected a Committee of Five to draft a declaration to the world presenting the colonies case for independence. The committee consisted of John Adams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Livingston of New York and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. The committee delegated Jefferson the task of writing the original document for the approval. After slight alterations that were subsequently made by Franklin and Adams, the document was submitted to Congress for approval. On Monday, July 8, 1776, America was declared by the colonial government as Independent.

On analyzing the individual freedom and fundamental rights, it is essential to look into the provision of rights of an individual. In America today, liberty and fundamental rights of an individual has improved with a better percentage.Traditionally, there had been always a war of colorracial war to an extent of a black not being in a position to contest in a political position, something that has been challenged by the fact that Obama, a half cast and a black man is the current President of the United States.

It is important to note that the current Government under the leadership of President Obama has secured the rights of individuals by deriving the powers from the consent of the governed. It symbolizes the freedom of expression and proper representation of people in terms of policy modification. The American government is structured in a way that the principles and the bill of rights are organized in such a way that it does not affect safety and happiness. This can only take place if peace and security of the people are taken into consideration. It is always believed that mankind is more disposed to suffer. In the modern America, liberties of individuals are rarely abused since the government guards the rights and freedom of individuals. However, when the government ceases to protect its citizens, then there must always be a negative setback on the freedom of an individual (Edward, 1950).

The famous preamble of the declaration of independence was basically concerned with the individual provision of natural law. Natural law is therefore the ability of a people to assume political independence, and acknowledges that the positions for such independence must be rational, and therefore reasonable, and ought to be explained (Edward,1950).Looking at the current state of American Government, many opportunities has been created to support social programmes for individual development both locally  and internationally. On the contrary, most people especially the American youths have resolved to be non aggressive for the opportunities available thereby violating their own rights to access government opportunities.

Youths in America compared to other states have opportunities in academic scholarships and education that others do not due to Affirmative Action, yet many of them dont take these opportunities to pursue their objectives in life. According to Edward (1950), individual rights can be violated by hisher own self but majority blames it on the government. One has the freedomliberty to choose to work or not in any of the well-off countries in the world, but they choose not to be equal by theirblatant inaction andattitude of entitlement. These are the people who expect the new USPresident to pay their mortgages and their taxes for them while they wait for help.

Declaration of Independence therefore meant a lot to America rather than just freedom and bill of rights it meant that positive habits and personal individual effort was greatly important in the realization of freedomliberty of the NationState. Liberty can be classified in two categories positive liberty and negative liberty. It is important to understand that liberty is based upon deep-seated principles and not philosophies or policies. Principles, which are based on reality, are constant and timeless philosophies and policies are erratic and changing and are based upon theories, conditions and opinion. Again, liberty is not free. It must be both earned and guarded. Lastly, liberty requires public morality or benefit. However, threat to our liberty today results from the gradual erosion of good qualities.

Arnold Toynbee once argued that nations are born from the blood of immigrants  a satirical reference to Nietzsches concept of nation-state. The United States seems to suit this description. Before the arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century, the United States was essentially a wilderness inhabited by a large number of Indian tribes. The first English colonial settlements were crude, poorly built, and exposed to the elements of nature. Provision of commodities was very minimal. There were constant raids from the Indians. The French harassed the English from the North. Indeed, in the 17th century English colony, life was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short, as Hobbes would put it.

But, after the critical period of the 1730s, the Thirteen Colonies began to experience economic prosperity. Immigrant Puritans increased the population of low-density settlements. The Puritans brought with them capital and money for building religious communities. Trade increased rapidly as North American products were sold at high prices in the markets of Europe. The British parliament increased military funding to protect English colonies in North America from both the French and the Spanish. Military security propelled economic development. In less than 20 years, the Thirteen colonies became an economic powerhouse in the New World, rivaling New Spain in the West.

This relative prosperity led to population boom in 1750. Hofstadter argued that this population boom was due primarily to a realigning of the colonies needs and priorities. English goods were now allowed to enter the colonies without restrictions or quota. The colonists enjoyed the sensation of an English lifestyle.

In Europe, the New World was becoming more and more popular both to the merchants and members of the middle class. The merchants saw the New World as a source of opportunity and wealth. The middle class saw it as a relief to economic hardships. After the Puritan surge in the 1640s came immigrants from Western Europe. French, German, and Dutch migrants settled in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New Amsterdam. There was also a considerable number of Catholics residing in South Carolina and Georgia. After the Thirty Years War in Europe, immigrants from Eastern Europe first appeared in the ports of New Amsterdam. Most came from Hungary, Austria, and Poland.

Irish immigrants came in the 1750s, followed by Italian, Greek, and Spanish immigrants. In 1750, immigrants constituted about 22 of the total population, according to Hofstadter. The figure was continuously increasing by 5 yearly. America was becoming a continent of immigrants or as Hodstadter would put it, a council of nations with common law.

Hofstadters account is far from complete. He apparently failed to discuss relevant political and economic topics in the book. Some of the relevant topics which should have been discussed are as follows 1) colonial rivalry, 2) territorial divisions, 3) royal charters, 4) the establishment of the plantation system, and 5) taxes on import and export goods. The book though offers a creative account of the Thirteen colonies at the close of the 18th century.

The essay is about the state of the University of Washington before during and after the great depression of the 1930s.  The changes in the students union, teachers, administration and infrastructure have been clearly discussed. The contents of the essay discuss the major changes at the University of Washington due to the reduced incomes and finances during the period of depression. In-text citation using Chicago referencing style has been clearly done. The references are listed at the end of the essay.

University of Washington 
The financial crisis during the great depression caused major changes in the structure of the University of Washington. The behavior patterns of the people were not consistent with the changes that occur during a financial crisis. People reduced their expenditure on education by reducing their budgets on education and a few people enrolled for colleges and universities. During hard economic situations people increase their expenditure on education and a great number is enrolled in colleges and universities so as to acquire skills and secure jobs. This was contrary in the case of the people of Washington during the great depression of the 1930s. Colleges and universities are not severely affected during the times of depression due too the high number of students who seek knowledge and skills. Economic opportunities disappear and the remaining option is the education system which absorbs a large number of people. However, the University of Washington registered a few number of students during this period.

During the great depression a great crisis was experienced by both the students and the University of Washington. There were many changes that were happening in the entire economy during this period. The students as well as the university had to reduce their budgets so as to accommodate the changing economic environment. Many students lacked tuition fees and the university encountered hard times to deal with low fee payments by the students. The workers at the university demanded more salaries and security for tenure. However the university had low incomes to sustain the large number of employees. Some employees were sacked while the others had their salary reduced. This created chaos and the employees sought to strike.

Labor conflicts increased due to the decreasing incomes and jobs. The university management adopted a new management strategy whereby they never listened to the suggestions of the students and employees. Enrollment had declined and the university had severe financial crisis which forced the management to adopt a new method of managing the staff and students. The demands by the students for free speech were declined and the university never allowed freedom to express oneself. The demands by the staff for academic freedom were also declined and they operated according to the orders from the management. Employees had no freedom to express their feelings about job satisfaction. Most of the employees had to abide by the new rules since the demand for jobs was very high and they risked loosing the jobs if they created conflicts with the management of the university.

The growth of the University of Washington increased during the 1920s. The enrollment had assumed an upward trend whereas the employment rate had also increased with time. At the end of World War I the enrollment was three thousand students per year. This number increased to more than 9,000 students enrollment rate in 1930. Before the great depression the University of Washington had encountered some problems. The funds of the university were few but the governor never wanted to increase the money to run the school. The university increased tuition fees so as to cater for the deficit caused by low the funds released by the government. There was a 50 percent increase in the tuition fees. In 1925 the situation became worse when Roland Hartley was elected the governor. He fired President Henry Suzzallo who had served for a long period of time. He then replaced the Board of Reagents by bringing new members. The salary and funding increases that had been proposed there before were banned. The university started to operate on a tight budget. The governor was not sympathetic about the situation. This happened before the great depression.

When the great depression came into reality in the beginning of 1930, the university was operating at a very poor condition. Most of the students terminated their education due to the hard economic situation coupled by the problem of fee increase. Students went home to assist their families obtain basic needs. Others had to drop their education because the part time jobs were no longer available. Most of the working class students relied on part time jobs and had to terminate their education since they had no money to pay their fees and upkeep.

Some students dropped out of school and became beggars. Others started stealing to survive. Others were forced to stop their studies when the members of the family who were the bread winner died. Most of the students resulted to dependence on charity bread line to survive. The enrollment rate reduced from eight thousand to almost six thousand during the peak of the depression era-1932. A great percent of the students were left at school had scholarships or had a stable income which was rare.

During 1932 the university reduced its budget further to accommodate the worsening economic situation. The state of Washington struggled to maintain its services to the people. Low tax revenues were collected. Property tax was the main source of income for the state. Most people lost their farms and homes due to poverty. The remaining owners were poor and relied on relief hence could not promptly pay property tax. Corporate tax and personal income taxes were introduced by the government to increase its revenues from tax. The governor Hartley banned the new tax system. The income tax and the property tax were voted in by a majority of the citizens. The Supreme Court of the state of Washington ruled out income tax suggesting that it was not supported by the constitution. In 1933 the property tax was terminated and nothing was placed to cater for the gap. This created a great crisis to the government and there were inadequate funds to run all the state enterprises.

In 1933 a new governor, Clarence Martin, came into power and replaced Hartley. Clarence lowered the tuition fees for the students at the University of Washington. He also reduced the admission requirements and this made more people access higher education. Clarence reduced the budget of the university and increased the funding by the government. The Board of Reagents accepted the new policies by the governor. One thousand more students registered after the implementation of the new policy. Towards the end of 1933 the number of students increased from seven thousand to eight thousand.

To act on the policy of reducing the budget that had been enforced by Clarence, the university reduced the salaries to its workers. They employees received a 40 percent reduction in their salaries towards the end of 1933. The number of teaching staff was cut by ten percent. The remaining teaching staffs received less pay and were required to increase their work load. The number of students increased and the workload for the teaching staff increased. The classes increased in population and when compared with other university, they were 70 percent larger. Strikes occurred to pressure the governor improve the situation at the university. New faculties were required to cater for the large number of students who were enrolling.
 
The students, faculty and the reagents had to protest the policies of the governor so as to achieve a better situation. They were able to convince the governor to increase the salaries for the teaching staff. He also increased the salaries for instructors due to the pressure that had been placed on him. By the end of the year the Board of Reagents planned to increase the number of instructors by a hundred during the following academic year. There were plans to increase the salaries for the teachers by fifty percent. During the following year there was an increase in the funding to the university and by the academic year 1935-36 the funds were double that of the year 1930-31. This was possible because the state restored its tax system. Education was funded from sales and business taxes. This increased the revenues of the state to cater for the higher education. Enrollment for students increased from nine thousand and above for the rest of the decade.

Changes in infrastructure
The university struggled to finance its operational activities. Public works increased its spending to the university and this created a lot of benefits. New buildings were established in the university by the end of 1935. The state had spent a lot of funds on infrastructure more than before. The new buildings that were constructed during this period were a dormitory, an infirmary, Chemistry building, Law School and smith Hall. The federal and the State government funded the construction of these infrastructures. The funds from Federal government were used to build new ball fields and athletic facilities. A new campus power plant was also built from these funds and also funded the adding of a wing to Suzzallo Library. Brick pathways which exist up-to-date were built in 1934.  Civil Works Administration built these pathways. Washington Park Arboretum was the most notable project that was established during this period. The University of Washington manages the arboretum although it is possessed by the City of Seattle.

Lee Paul Sieg was named the new president of the University in 1934. Sieg changed the curriculum and the governance of the university to fit the prevailing conditions. Academic units were reorganized. The arts and sciences were united and formed one college. Preparation for enrolling new students was made to create an efficient system.

The life of students during the depression era
During the 1920s higher education was expensive. Most working-class students could not manage the high cost. Public schools supported students even from families financially capable of supporting them. This was a culture that had been adopted by students from middle as well as upper economic classes. During this period (before the great depression) students actively involved in athletics, sports and other extra-curriculum activities. Many clubs were formed to cater for the needs of the students.

During the great depression the public institutions had no funds to support the students. This made most students to support themselves. Most students came from humble families and could not afford the extravagant life as before. The federal government introduced the National Youth administration to support the students. The unemployed youths were given relief by this agency to enable them finance their education effectively. Work study programs were established in the state. Students could work in the libraries, research firms and canteens so as to increase their incomes. Most students did work study programmes to support themselves by 1937.

Student politics changed during the 1930s and they supported socialist party. During the elections for 1932 most students in the country supported Herbert Hoover. A small percent supported Franklin Roosevelt. The socialist party had Norman Thomas as their candidate. In Seattle campus the student adopted the same trend. Hoover had a 60 response compared to 29 for Roosevelt and 12 for Norman Thomas.

After elections the students became more liberal and radical in the national politics. However, the politics never interfered with athletics and social events among the students. Student newspapers reported the events in the campus about the activities of the students as well as the political events. Students actively involved in community activities and in politics.

During the depression students at the University of Washington established Student Cooperative Association. The association provided material support to students and the community. This was done in collaboration with the Unemployed Citizens Council. After the depression the association conducted fundraising within the community and provided cloths to the unemployed students and people within the community. The students union raised protest against the overcrowded classrooms. They also protested the sacking of popular professors by the governor. After the depression the students carried peaceful movements within the campus and the community around.

Unions and academic labor
During the 1920s the instructors encountered a lot of labor problems due to the decline in the funding to the university by the federal and state governments. The instructors were underpaid and had no job security. Promotions were declined and a few people could climb their career ladder. The Instructors Association (IA) was established to overlook the labor problems that the instructors encountered. The association was able to fight for salary increment but was unable to improve the job security for the instructors. Local 401 of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) was established in 1935. This association was able to express the ideas of the faculty members to the federal government. President Sieg declined to work with AFT and wanted to negotiate with IA. The unions were able to fight for the rights of all employees. Discrimination of married females was stopped and the plight of the non-faculty employees was abolished. However, the union never lasted for long and in 1938 IA was converted into Faculty Senate.

Emergence of World War II and students activism
Antiwar movements were formed by the students to protest the emergence of war. The students organized national strikes to protest the increasing threats of national war. President Sieg never supported the strikes and invited leaders to stop the national strikes by the students. Due to the high probability of America involving in war, the university established systems to encounter their enemies during the war. The university established programmes to teach skills in canning food, navy activities, and chemical warfare. Secretive researches were conducted about military activities. Engineering departments designed ships and bombers for war. The university assisted the federal government during World War II and this brought a lot of economic prosperity to the economy. The university was expanded after the war after the federal government increased its funding. The labor problems that were encountered in the 1920s and 1930s were resolved and the university operated normally.

The 1920s saw the end of the First World War when Germany accepted the armistice and the alliance emerged victorious. Most of this victory was as a result of the advanced fighting skills of the US army led by General Pershing. The first election brought an end to the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson, who was the twenty-eighth president of the US and his liberal policies. The Americans choose President Harding who was a republican. This restored power to the conservative group for most of the twenties and thirties. Before the armistice, plans for demobilization were already in place. The US defense department had not anticipated such a quick end to the First World War and was therefore faced with the challenge of ensuring that most of these military officers were demobilized honorably with very little impact on the domestic economy. Thirty demobilization camps were set up over the US and more than 3.25 million military officers were discharged leaving a small military force for post war duties as well as domestic occupation. The US defense department however also kept a large reserve of unused weapons from the First World War for possible emergency use and peacetime efforts.

The US government had ignored the treaty of Versailles and even after the armistice had continued to fight and invade Germany until 1921 when a separate treaty was signed. The last American troops evacuated Germany in 1923. Shortly after German troops were given the armistice in the First World War, the American war department had already convinced congress on the necessity of establishing a regular American army of about five hundred thousand men. In addition, General Pershing who had led the First World War American force had already introduced the concept of training these troops in a formal military school. The American defense department therefore also suggested the implementation of a three month training system for these troops in order to allow the steady expansion of the force and to give them relevance in modern warfare. Congress however refused these requests despite the possibility of a war with Japan arguing that if such a conflict occurred it would primarily be naval and not on land. The US government therefore sorely relied on the navy as their main line of defense for the twenties and most of the thirties.

After the First World War, in the early 1920s, most of the formidable international powers formed an alliance in order to provide a strong international security system. The US congress had decided not to join this League of Nations leaving them with the need to establish a strong military force. As a result of a lot of accumulated distrust on international alliances, the American government focused on developing an army sorely for the protection of their domestic interests as opposed to international security. The result was therefore a small mobilization army which continued to reduce as international threats seemed to recede. This relatively small army consisting of nineteen thousand officers and two hundred thousand enlisted men relied on the materials left over after the 1918 armistice. Congress therefore, was not pushed for any further funding in the 1920s.

In the 1920s the US army was therefore only involved in peacekeeping missions and not active combat. In 1920, the American regular army units were dispatched to guard the Mexican boarder due to the various constant political revolutions taking place. In 1921, the regular army also supplied troops to settle the numerous land disputes which were emerging within America. In the 1920s and 1930s, the only American force stationed on foreign land was a garrison of one thousand soldiers which was stationed at Tientsin, China from 1912 to 1938 and one thousand officers stationed in the Philippines for five months in 1932.
The national defense act which was passed by congress in June 4, 1920 governed both the regulation and the organization of the American army until 1950. This act rejected the need to expand the army as argued previously by Calhoun and instead advocated splitting the army into three branches. This comprised of the standing regular force, an organized reserve force and the National Guard. These three forces were to be regulated during the peacetimes and would be expected to contribute their share of officers incase of any war. This act relied heavily on the ability of the government to recruit and rely on citizen soldiers incase of any war emergencies. However the act also gave precedence to the importance of training the National Guard and the reserved forces during the peacetimes and this duty was given to the regular force. Thirty one service schools were set up to cater for the training of these officers. There was an overall increased emphasis on the importance of training armies internationally.

Three new branches were formed under this act. These included the air service branch, the chemical warfare branch and the finance department. The responsibility of the planning, supervising and preparing for war was given to the war department under this act. In 1921 General Pershing who had led the troops of the First World War, became the chief of staff and reorganized all the military personnel into five divisions as he had during combat. These divisions were personnel, intelligence, training and operations, supplying and the new division of planning and preparation for war. This was meant to bring an improved level of efficacy into the American army and prevent the disorganization crisis which had taken place at the battle of Meuse Argonne where several troops went without communication, food and water for days. In 1926 a new division, the air corps were established.

The aviation warfare maintained its vitality even in the face of the tank almost becoming obsolete due to increased political conservatism. The army was split into two based on the use of airplane warfare. One camp advocated for the use of airplanes to that of offering fire support and reconnaissance to ground tank troops while the other camp led by Brig. Gen. William Mitchell advocated for the use of airplanes for strategic bombing. In 1921 and 1923 Brig. Gen. William Mitchell had used airplanes in several tests against obsolete warships to demonstrate their potential in strategic bombing. Despite the decision to only use airplanes for reconnaissance and fire support, William Mitchell avidly continued expressing his distaste with the decision his superiors and congress had taken leading to his demotion to the rank of colonel in 1925. This was followed by a court martial the following year for insubordination and an eventual resignation. This debate however continued into the Second World War until 1940 when Gen. Frank Andrew purchased the B17 bomber.

General MacArthur, who was the chief of staff, in the thirties, recommended a reorganization of the forces and an increase n the size leading to expansion changes between 1930 and 1935. He also led to a more realistic organization of the country incase of a war. His recommendations highlighted the need for strategic mobility. MacArthur insisted on the need to use the armys resources to replace the means of transport from horses to a smaller but more favorable means of transport. The inception of a motorized means of transport allowed the army to provide faster and more efficient systems of transport to replace the horses which had been their main means of transport since the cavalry.

The army also underwent reformation in organization allowing the creation of new divisions in order to allow control over the training of larger air and ground forces. During this interwar period, the army focused its limited resources on maintaining personnel strength and training its forces as opposed to acquiring new equipment. Small budgets assigned by congress in the light of the great depression led to the crippling of various army arsenals and army laboratories. Despite these hurdles, the army used the existing resources to build on the technological advances of the First World War. The industrial period in the 1920s and 1930s brought a revolution in technology bringing along various technological advances for the army.

Four army headquarters and a general headquarters were created between 1932 and 1935 allowing the National Guard and the reserve forces to train together with the navy. In 1935, congress accepted the need to increase the size of the army and ordered the regular army to increase its capacity to one hundred and sixty five thousand troops. This was followed by an increase in combat equipment which had now become obsolete against any modern equipment and by 1938 the regular army had achieved both improved strength and readiness and were ready for any emergency. With increased congressional support, infantry tanks were mechanically developed to support attacks and Calvary tanks were developed more adequately to support any war missions. The need for increased mobility was emphasized in the development of the tanks.

In conclusion, the American army in the 1920s and 1930s was faced with inadequate personnel and equipment as a result of low funding and budget cuts. America refused to form the great alliance due to unresolved conflicts from international alliances choosing instead to form a small army capable of sorely protecting their national interests. The American army focused on discharging most of the officers who had served in the First World War and only retained a small force for occupation and domestic affairs. The 20s were relatively peaceful and the only officers on foreign soil were one thousand privates who had earlier on been deployed to china and later in 1932, one thousand more were deployed to Philippines. Training of officers became an integral issue in developing a formidable force and military training schools were set up. The regular army was mandated with the task of training the rest of the troops. During this time, there was a conflict on the use of airplanes in the war. While the army superiors agreed that they would only be used for providing fire support and reconnaissance to ground troops, others including general Mitchell were of the opinion that these planes should be used for strategic bombing and air raids. This led to his eventual demotion and resignation. However, the debate did not end and in 1940 in the wake of the Second World War, General Frank Andrew purchased the first B17 bomber amidst a lot of protests. General MacArthur who was the chief of staff in the 1930s led congress to make changes in the administration, organization and funding of the army. He proposed and enacted a larger army force which had better strategic mobility and in addition focused on attaining high quality equipment from the obsolete reservoirs retained after the First World War. By 1939, the American army was therefore adequately prepared for the Second World War.