American History

Phillip Taubman is the national security and intelligence reporter who worked for NYC for nearly two decades. He is really a meticulous investigator.

In his book, “Eisenhower, the CIA, and the Hidden Story of America's Space Espionage”, Taubman describes how US conducted aerial espionage on USSR during the cold war period the fact of which was not known to Congress and public. The invention and deployment of the U2 spy plane and the first space satellites in the 1950’s and in the early 1960 can be regarded as a technological feat which assisted to prevent a disastrous military conflict with USSR. This has also resulted in a complete transformation in spying process by abandoning the HUMINT (Human spying) and switching to reconnaissance espionage, which is being practiced by US even now.

In 1953, when President Eisenhower assumed office of the President, he got vexed with non-availability of adequate intelligence on the Soviet Union, particularly its missile and nuclear program According to Eisenhower; such lack of intelligence was extra-ordinarily perilous in a world envenomed by the Cold War which culminated in the atmosphere of suspicion and fear. Eisenhower did not want to wage a war with Russia even by mistake or to spend heavily on the acquisition of dangerous weapons that were not needed at all.

Taubman describes Eisenhower as the” father of the US satellite espionage.” But for his vision and support, the satellite and aerial based reconnaissance system would not have succeeded.

As a commander in World War II, Eisenhower was fascinated by the realities thrown open by government coordination with the science. Eisenhower vast experience on the battle field taught him the value of collection of crucial intelligence data in the war field.  What made him to concern much was that cold war apprehensions might push America into a status of war mongering state .Eisenhower organized a small group of engineers, scientists and businessmen and assigned the task of searching safe and reliable means to spy on the USSR from the sky. To maintain secrecy, Eisenhower assigned the operational parts of the clandestine program to the CIA. With the help of missionary gang members, a new way of spying was invented mainly through technological and scientific feats.

The outcome was the introduction of U2 and the latter the satellites and USA received many numbers of intelligence on the USSR that facilitated American President to take an effective decision as regards to conclude the arm limitation agreements.

Since 1950’s, USA has organized a secret mission of space borne and high altitude photographic reconnaissance, which was never been secret as claimed to be. With the help of publicly available various classified sources, briefs on the subject, through the list of confabulated documents, technical sources and statements, which had been detailed in about 18 pages, Phillip Taubman has narrated in his book “Secret Empire” the annals of strategic issues of this secret missions, personalities, politics and technologies that had driven the administration of USA’s to peruse this brilliant space reconnaissance competence. It is to be noted that much of his revelation in his book is new to the public domain.

In 1950’s, USA was handicapped in intelligent espionage of USSR capabilities about the number of nuclear warheads, tactical missiles, bombers.  Churchill commented in the 1950’s that Russia was “a puzzle enfolded in a mystery.”

There existed a threatening atmosphere; the Eisenhower government was trying to construct an unbiased defense strategy which could present an efficient cover against its enemy whose intentions and capabilities were not identified exactly. Eisenhower employed solid tactical information, reconnaissance oriented calculation of tactical stuffs –was the answer to the issue.

At that time, USSR was called as ‘denied area” where accession or spying in the USSR was really impossible. Though, US’s “RB-47s” and identical airplane investigated the boundaries of USSR but could not have deep access into the USSR. Moreover, US spy aircraft frequently wrecked in USSR provinces and there were a large number of casualties of the crew which created political discomfiture for the US administration.

Taubman narrates how US secret mission with the help of Kelly Johnson, head of Lockheed, Edwin Land of Polaroid , the CIA’s renowned manager, Richard Bissell , James Baker of Harvard and Arthur Lundhal of CIA was able to build U2 high-elevation spy  airplane and afterward the first ever imaging spy satellites , Corona.

Taubman portrays the above personnel’s as the true patriots placing their substantial scientific acumen and vision to their nation’s dire need. These men quickly understood need for finding new ways of spying that is distinct from traditional ones and had the outlook to visualize the challenges of novel technologies and their applications to the issue of aerial spying.

Taubman had done a wonderful assignment of understanding the importance of the scientific issues involved and how these young scientists found the solution to the issue. Earlier to U2 mission, an aircraft never functioned at the height of seventy thousands feet and with a range beyond three thousand miles. This is considered crucial as USSR had the ability to shoot spy planes within the range of fifty thousands feet only.

Johnson crafted the resolution from “Johnson Skunk Works “by designing U2, which is a kind of jet- catered sailplane. Kodak devised films that could encounter the severity of hotness witnessed at heights of seventy thousands feet; Baker developed cameras with elongated central heights that collapsed into stiff fuselage and satellite places; Lundhal managed analyzation of photographs to evaluate and obtain valuable information from the images.

When U2 replaced the satellite –born cameras, initially, there were technical issues. Readying and launching U2 into the orbit was really laborious. Selecting between returning exposed film and relaying television pictures from space was a delicate issue, and it demanded various technological alternatives. When film containers ejected from U2, it returned to the atmosphere, and it was carried by a parachute, and it was picked up a specially designed C-130, a specifically designed apparatus for this purpose.

Though, U2 episode may be viewed quite simple now but in the 1950’s, these were definitely pioneering technological achievements.
No doubt, strategic histories like this, too frequently, consider these critical technical feats so trivial.  However, Taubman gives much importance to the changing technologies and portrays their function and effect to the understandings of booklovers.

Taubman illustrates the outcomes of the pictures that U2 or Corona returned and the first U2 flight photographed a great volume of images extending enormous expanses of the unexposed interiors of USSR. These pictures revealed an important message to USA’s administration that there is nothing to worry about either Soviet Bison bombers or Soviet intercontinental missiles as they were very few and not in the state of readiness.

However, these revelations did not put a full stop to the Cold War or place the USA totally at ease. Moreover, it did fetch a little scope and balance to scheduling for US defense for the late 1950’s.  Critics alleged that the Eisenhower government had spent huge amounts on aerial spying and wasted billions of dollars on it. However, the snapshots from these aircrafts and satellites proved that amount spent of reconnaissance was worthwhile as it had exposed the weakness of Soviet missile status.

Taubman’s crucial point is that industrial– military cooperation did work for a long phase in the 1950’s. Due to ‘iron curtain” US comprehended very small about the USSR’s martial intention or strength.  It was not easy to infiltrate or spying the Kremlin in those days as Soviets were constantly brought down the US espionage airplanes. Further, US sporadically sent spy planes plunging over the Russian province with cameras fitted in their bomb howls. Hence, in the 1950s’, America had no spy arrangement to comprehend whether the Soviet was intending to invade or who would succeed if they attack?

To overcome the obstacles in spying, Americans indulged in space and high atmospheric spying through cameras’ that would make them to fly not within the range of Soviet firing target. Though, this project witnessed with high bureaucratic and scientific obstacles, the US innovative personalities accomplished it, mainly ahead of time agenda and within the financial plan.

The initial chapters of Taubman’s book portrayed the invention of the marvelous U2 project .At the initial stages, the project witnessed devastating technological barriers. At the occasion of U2 invention, MIG fighter jets of USSR attained heights of 50,000 feet and hence, US reconnaissance required to take off at about seventy thousands feet, an elevation where cameras seldom function, the paucity of oxygen minimizes the engine thrust, where human blood evaporates and the skeletal air makes it difficult to maneuver.

U2 had many unique features like its thin, lengthened wings, which facilitated to counterbalance the lack of lift, its unique outfits saved the pilots from exploding, and about eight kilometers length of film can be stored in an extraordinary camera with thirty-six–inch lens that can take a minute and clear picture of objects on the ground. U2 flew only 24 missions, and it was shot on its final mission in 1960s.  Taubman illustrates that U2 demonstrated that the missile fissure was a fable and removed the fallacy that awful USSR Bison bombers were plenty in numbers and highlighted that US witnessed no forthcoming danger from Soviet. Taubman recalls from Eisenhower memoirs’ writing that “U2 secret information denied Khrushchev of the most tactical weapon of communist’s conspiracy namely international black mail.

In the next session, Taubman describes about the invention of the Corona reconnaissance satellite.  It was planned to take photos from the orbit and then shoot down film canisters to American recovery teams through parachute. Coronas took photos of every Soviet ICBM complex and exposed an invaluable archive of Soviet’s weak military power.

In the concluding chapters, Taubman narrates the innovations in the last three decades. He describes about the Blackbird, a spy plane designed in 1970s, which can play the distance of Los Angeles to Washington in 70 minutes and the inventions of global positioning satellites.

Taubman also emphasizes on a contemporary familiar but a valid argument that US is heavily depending upon spy satellites, which offered a huge data that made CIA to place less reliance on human intelligence (spy or agents) which demonstrates many of the agency’s recent failures, like the debacle to prevent September 11 incidents and failure to pre warn about India’s nuclear test in 1998.

Taubman also appreciates the role played by Air Force in initiating, managing and recovering the payloads from the overhead spy missions like Corona and U2. In writing this book, Taubman trusted heavily on one-side versions of erstwhile CIA officials what they narrated in their book. The Taubman contributions could have been more interesting had he included a few more of the old satellite missions as some of the original contributors are still there to exchange their memories.

Though, Taubman has fairly well documented but the end notes were rather clumsy devise of pulling out short quotes instead of employing numbers to recognize the sources.

The most exciting parts of Secret Empire by Taubman are its excellent outline of major contributors to the design and manufacture of overhead investigation including their association with each other and the establishment they worked for. Taubman gives illustrious pictures of various players of the project U2 and Corona like Clearance ‘Kelly” Johnson, James Plummer, Edwin Land of Polaroid and James Killian of MIT. These stalwarts whom were the part of U2 and Corona mission were trusted by Eisenhower as his trusted advisors on intelligence and scientific sectors.

Taubman’s book is based on the existing sources, corroborated by many numbers of interviews by himself to illustrate how the Corona and U2 were designed so swiftly despite massive, institutional and technical confronts.

The well guarded secrecy was opened by President Lyndon Johnson in 1967 that America had a secret reconnaissance satellite program.  Johnson revealed that US spent about $35 to $40 billion on space espionage. Johnson acknowledged that US gained the knowledge of space photography and opined that it would be worth of 10 fold what the complete program would have costed. Johnson clarified that satellites regularly surveyed the USSR, assuring American leaders that USSR military assets was ascertainable, recognized and at rest. This confidence permitted the two military powers to survive the balance of terror without blemishing each other into a war that neither dared to tread on.

Taubman reveals that the strata of secrecy still hovering with the American public and a complete comprehension of the cold war.  Eisenhower maintained a black budget and even after a year of U2 successful mission, even a single member of congress knew about its existence. Further, since it is a secret mission, Taubman could not substantiate President Johnson’s claim about U2 benefits and costs. He has portrayed some of the bureaucratic tussles between the CIA, Air Force and the National Reconnaissance office. He also offers a tantalizing but necessarily incomplete hint of the human toll of the cold war reconnaissance as the many numbers of pilots have lost their lives in the provinces of the Communists' bloc and in the Soviet Union.

Taubman’s book can be considered as double worth –primarily, for its chronological progress of worth and effect of tactical spying and subsequently for its brainstorm into the part of expertise and technical experts in drafting tactical military strategy.

Taubman was able to give a broad account mostly based from oral history archives, gathered from earlier assorted documents and number of consultations with the top officials who served Eisenhower government. During the Eisenhower era, there was a necessary for secure means to espionage on the USSR as many pilots had been either lost or killed in aerial spy assignments. Taubman emphasizes that Eisenhower secret mission served as a peace keeping mission by eradicating the allusion of an unexpected war.  CIA analysts were able to determine through U2 program that the USSR was neither excelling the US in the production of “long-range” missile nor positioning many numbers of intercontinental missiles as envisaged. This book acts as a narration of science and the engineering , policy decision and research behind the Corona and the U2, but it also acts as a best social narration about the Cold War that was in force in 1950’s and early 1960’s.  It is really a page-turner too, markedly with Taubman’s descriptions of the first U2 flight, the Sputnik, and the firing of Francis Gary Power’s U2 over the USSR province and the consequential setback to Eisenhower government’s standing. Taubman discusses about an epoch where the US Congressmen were constantly held in the dark about other spy agency and CIA maneuvers.

Though, U2 and Corona offered excellent intelligence on USSR military capabilities, but it made the US government to fail in the Humint sector. Taubman is of the view that intelligence revolution that occurred in the 1950s’ made the US too reliant on satellite reconnaissance. It made the CIA to completely neglect the HUMINT (Human Intelligent), i.e. collection of information through spies. Though satellites reconnaissance is more powerful, it may not reveal much information what the nation requires to know, since the war on terrorism needs intelligence of a very different sort. As CIA has completely disregarded the HUMINT, it was possible for Al-Qaida to wage an unimaginable attack on US on September 11.

In a nutshell, Secret Empire tells a lot about different America that existed in 1950s than what we see today. During those days, the private sector was ethical and honest, Washington functioned and the President Eisenhower comprehended well that technology and science could greatly influence national security. However, in the last two decades, though there was an expansion in the military but there were misplaced priorities, which have compelled US present president to crush their adversaries in a variety of tiny wars. The perceptiveness achieved of a generation ago somewhat much more significant. They, in fact, assisted us to circumvent a third world war.

In this book, “Facing East from Indian Country,” Daniel K. Richter attempts to examine the Euro-American conquest of Native Americans from the perspective of Native Americans themselves. While the title itself is very original, the theme is not. Many historical perspectives, encompassing many histories, have been derived from this viewpoint. However, the fact that this thesis is not completely original should in no way detract from the effectiveness of the information provided, which is abundant. Using information culled from a variety of sources, mostly secondary (although these secondary sources may be derived from primary sources), Richter offers a myriad of information to support his assertions that the Native American population had more influence on the history of colonial America than they may originally have been given credit for. It is for this reason that this is an important work and should be considered carefully when formulating an opinion regarding this important time in American history.

    Richter sets out to establish Native American influences based on the chronology of events and attitudes that helped shape colonial America starting in 1497. The author is not afraid to set his story based on fictional events that he can readily apply in order to create a seamless path to a history that he can factually support. In fact, this is how he opens the book when he imagines a “Distant World.” (Richter, chapter 1)  From that point forward, however, Richter utilizes solid information to support his viewpoint that in addition to Native Americans having a larger say in their own destiny during this time, there was also a misinterpretation of the influence that Euro-American’s had on the Native American response to the things that went on around them.

    As indicated by the title of title of the book, the author is attempting to look at history from another perspective. Instead of facing west from white man’s country (from the Atlantic seaboard) and viewing early American history through typical white sensibilities, Daniel Richter is viewing that same history from the perspective of Native American’s and his interpretation is far more sensitive to their story than many other narratives. For example, when discussing Pontiac and his war in the Ohio valley, Richter tells of the various motivations Pontiac had in staging his “war.” (Richter, 193-201) Also, the author does a good job of setting up the following individual stories of violence between the white invaders and Native American’s by explaining the importance of their customs, such as reciprocal gift giving. (Richter, 52-53) These customs were very important to Native American’s and any deviation from these customs would be construed as disrespect. The interpretation by Native American’s that they were being disrespected led to hostilities so the importance of Indian custom was something the author clearly sought to include in the narrative. Other events, such as the seven years war are well explained and give the reader an interesting perspective on how the Native American’s in the Ohio valley area felt abandoned when their “French fathers” lost the war and gave the territory up to the British. (Richter, 185-87) These events, and many more help the reader understand how circumstances, when viewed through the eyes of the loser, rather than the winner, may offer different explanations for what occurred.
    The chief complaints with this book are fairly minor and are mostly due to omissions rather than information provided. It may have been beneficial for Richter to include the Jesuit translations of Algonquin speaking tribes, which is known to be fairly accurate rather than just focusing on mistranslations from other sources. Also, when speaking of why we remember Pocahontas (Rebecca), Tekakwitha (Catherine), and Phillip, there may not be a whole lot of credence to Richter’s assertion that it is due to their English names. This does not explain why we remember Hiawatha, Techumseh or a variety of other Native American figures who were not assigned American names. Although the author does do a good job of explaining how the Ohio valley Indians were abandoned after the seven years war, it might have also been beneficial to offer more information on how the French defeat affected those tribes that supported the French afterward. While some information is provided, I feel there could have been more based on the effect the disenfranchisement had on those tribal nations. There other minor complaints but overall, this book was very effective in its reach and I would heartily recommend it.

    The value this book has for this American history class is in the sympathetic, yet concise interpretation of early American history. Although many of these stories have been represented in dozens of text books, Daniel Richter illustrates these historical events in a slightly different manner, one that takes care to explain the Native American perspective as it applied and how that perspective influenced how these events occurred. By looking at early American history from Indian country and facing east, Richter attempts to offer a perspective that isn’t the typical white man’s but at the same time, the author still covers, factually, the important events that helped shape this country. This viewpoint is important in order to understand that the standard interpretation isn’t the only one available. It is for this reason that “Facing East from Indian Country” has value and should be included in any historian’s library.

Reverend Lemuel Haynes is truly one individual of the black community who formed the basis for the recognition of the African-American community. He was among the first black American to climb to the ruling class, the first black to be ordained as a church minister and so also among the first blacks to attain high academic credentials. All these achievements by Lemuel Haynes a found to be unique mainly due to the fact that they were realized during the time when the blacks where victims of slavery in the American land. It should also be noted that apart from achievements in religion, education and military service, Lemuel Haynes is greatly praised by many for the role he played in the fight against slavery practices over the blacks.
Lemuel Haynes was truly a devoted human rights activist as he always fought for the recognition of the black as equal to the whites in all human aspects except skin color. Being a committed Christian, Reverend Lemuel Haynes formed one of the most outstanding critics of the discriminative evangelical missions by the whites. It is still worthy noting that Reverend Lemuel Haynes is praised as one of the major players in the political revolution that took place during his time. It is due to this that he is typically referred to as a true patriot of the black’s community in America both in the eighteenth and nineteenth century.
This paper is written to discuss the findings of the research on the Reverend Lemuel Haynes’ achievements as a milestone towards the ultimate recognition of the black community in the American nation. The author in particular gives an account of Reverend Lemuel Haynes life and the prevailing factors which led to his remarkable achievements in the American historical revolutionary politics, religion and respect for human rights.

The early life of Reverend Lemuel Haynes

    Lemuel Haynes was born on the 18th of July the year 1753 to a black father and a middle class mother in West Hartford. However, historical information clearly indicates that Lemuel was abandoned by his parents at the age only to be brought up by a white’s family in Massachusetts. Even with the little knowledge of his early childhood life, historical information has shown Lemuel was given by his parents to serve as a servant in Granville, Massachusetts for a term of twenty years.# The agreement that governed the handing over of Lemuel to the white dictated that apart from engaging in agricultural work, education was to be provided to him. It is such conditional servitude agreement which enabled Haynes gain access to education, a rare occasion for the blacks at that time.

Historical evidence still attributes Lemuel Haynes’ interest in the Christian faith to the fact that his master was a Calvinist believer and frequently allowed Haynes to accompany them to church. The influence of the Christian teaching particularly on the Day of Judgment led to Haynes’ acceptance of the Christian faith at the age of twenty. This act led to his beginning to preach the good news to others. His knowledge on how to read and write coupled with his religious conviction that slavery is cruel and immoral made him to start writing antislavery essays at his early twenties. It is however to be understood that the expiry of his indenture term at the age of twenty one was marked with beginning of the Americans war of independence. This made him a freeman upon which he decided to join the minutemen military squad of Granville in 1774.
It is here to be noted that not much is known about Lemuel Haynes and his family involvements. It has however been clearly established that Haynes got married in the year 1783 to what historians refer to as a white lady of respect and honor. It has also been claimed that the couple had ten children. However, little is known about existence of the family. This shows that Haynes led a complete life, constantly challenging the norms of the society at the time by marriage a white lady of respect and honor.
Lemuel Haynes in military service and its influence in his revolutionary activities

    The year 1774 was marked with Lemuel Haynes recruitment into the minutemen colonial army of Granville. Upon his joining of the militia group, Lemuel underwent military training. Historical evidence shows that the 1775 wars at Roxbury marked the first military involvement for Haynes. It is also clearly evident that the successful ending of the Roxbury war made Haynes to accept an offer for joining the military team as a volunteer in the Ticonderoga region recapturing mission.# It was not until the end of the American war for independence that Lemuel Haynes terminated his military involvement and went back to Granville. 

The involvement of Lemuel Haynes in the military operations during the American war for independence is cited as the reason behind his completed response to the religious and political structures and practices in the American society. It was during his military missions that Lemuel evidently witnessed the eminent mistreatment imposed to the black slaves in the military. It is in fact due to this reason that he started writing short essays on antislavery. Such reaction could also be clearly explained by the fact that Haynes had a strong conviction on the need for fairness and just treatment to all in the community owing to is strong religious beliefs. The involvement of Lemuel was thus a major turning point to his view of the future of the black American community.

Lemuel Haynes as a Calvinist believer and later a pastor

    Lemuel indulgence into the Christian faith can be evidently claimed to have been an influence from the master he had served since his childhood. It is evidently clear that it was as a result of following his master for church service that Haynes came to know and later appreciate Christianity. This is basically by the fact that his decision to become a Christian was triggered by a summon during one of the Sundays which involved the day of judgment and its implication to man as the only being who will be subjected to the judgment. Another reason why such acceptance of Christian could be attributed to his master is the fact Haynes ended up becoming a strong believer of the same congregation as was his master. It is however to be noted all this was before he had joined the military.

    After the end of the American war for independence, Haynes return to Granville where he resumed his servant duties. This gave him the chance to gain access to education and attend church services. It is due to the education that he acquired during this time that made him a respectable member of the community due to his mastery in Greek and Latin scholar requirements. This coupled with his string religious faith enabled him to win a chance for joining theological studies under the Calvinism church ministry in 1780. He was also offered the opportunity of preaching the gospel in the church of Granville, the first African ever to be given such a responsibility in the white men dominated church. It has evidently been claimed that Haynes was one of the most knowledgeable and highly respected members of the church particularly in understanding an interpreting the bible. This led to his ordination as a minister in the church in 1785 upon his completion of the theological studies.

    It is here to be noted that Haynes’ ministerial involvement was limited in terms of the number of stations he served. This is because he was ordained in Litchfield before moving to Torrington to serve as a minister. He however resigned from this station owing to eminent mistreatment by the church members due to his race. He was the later transferred to Rutland in Vermont. It is in Rutland where Haynes spend most of his ministerial time as he served there for over thirty years. Historical information has evidently shown that Haynes’ stay in Rutland and his struggles for the realization a slavery free America were highly appreciated. It is also to be understood that religious beliefs in the nation had greatly compromised by social practices in the nations.# It was due to this that Haynes is highly praised for his call to have a religious community which is highly guided by biblical teachings.

It is worth noting here that due to his excellent preaching ability coupled with his clear understanding of the bible and his knowledge of reading and writing, Haynes gained demand from the New England. Still, it was a common notion during that time that only the learned professional blacks can be regarded as viable of becoming a member of the ruling class. Such achievements by Lemuel were so great and extra ordinary that in the recent past many analysts equated it to the rise of a black man into the heights social or political status of the American nation.
    The demand and respect that Haynes received particularly from the New England community is however to be seen as the beginning of his hard struggle to bring sanity both in the religious practices and in the political revolution process of the nation. It is here to be noted that despite the many claims by the missionaries, the early role of the church was an evident prevention to the liberation of the blacks. The so they termed as civilization of the blacks meant the conversion of the blacks to adhere to the ways of the whites thus losing their cultural identity in the society. This was basically marked by the introduction of capitalism in the community. This was evidently meant to break the family identity characteristic of the African culture. As argued by Haynes, religion was seen as the best tool for ensuring oppressive civilization to the people as any complains could be easily addressed by citing biblical provisions on respect to the laws.

    Still to be noted is the fact that Lemuel Haynes was greatly against the concept of theological innovation in the church. For him, the idea of unifying the protestant church into one umbrella was a negation of the freedom of the people to lead a God guided life. It has been evidently claimed that such a move for having a unified church could highly result into further discrimination of the blacks. This was because of the fact that the church and its concept of liberation had greatly failed to realize freedom and thus equality among the different members of the community. This could also been attributed to lack of viable possibility of realizing a compromise of practices and ideologies of the different congregations.# It was Haynes’ concept that there should be spiritual liberty in the human community.

Among the achievements that Haynes made include his 1818 involvement was the advocate of the boom brothers who had been sentenced to death citing their involvement in murdering of an insane. It is however by the power of pray that the insane man returned home just a few days before the execution was conducted. Even with the many struggles to oversee the rule of the law as defined in the holy bible, Haynes remained a member of the south Granville congregational church ideal his death in the year 1833.
Lemuel Haynes as a writer

    Owing to his ability to read and write, Lemuel made many writing all of which were in condemnation of the slavery and the discriminative governance that was evidently present in the community. Historical evidence has shown that Haynes started to write and distribute antislavery essay since his early twenties. It is in fact due to this spreading inciting information to the blacks that the community witnessed many riots from the blacks seeking for their recognition just like other human beings. Haynes particularly claimed that all are equal and thus should be treated with respect and honor. It is also evident from his letters that he struggled for fair treatment of the blacks by abolishing slavery. It is in this that he raised concerns that blacks are human beings with feeling and emotions just as the white are and thus should not be mistreated. It is in fact his incitement to the citizens of the nation particularly the blacks that could be seen as the foundation of later social movements in the quest for having recognition of the black community by our constitution.# It has allows been claimed that it is only when a problem affecting our human community has been identified and loudly condemned that a lasting solution can be sort. It is thus based on this argument Lemuel Haynes identified slavery and poor political structures in the American nation as well as evangelical liberation as some eminent social problems affecting the society. It is thus through his writing against such practices that made the people not only understand them as a problem but also made them more informed of the available solutions to the problem.

    On politics, Haynes was evidently found to condemn the government’s reluctance in addressing the issue of oppression of the blacks and the slavery practice in the nation. It is in fact due to these concerns raised by Haynes that elementary education was made available to most of the blacks in the community. It is also to be recognized that the struggle to realize independence for the American nation had been successful and now what remained was the ensuring of equality and just distribution of resources. It is due to this that Haynes constantly wrote and talked against slavery perceiving it to be cruel, immoral and against the will of God. It is morally inhuman for any government which claims responsibility over its citizens to allow for the discrimination of given quarters of the society. It is therefore by Haynes expression of the need for equitable justice in our nation that many civil rights movements were realized. It is indeed due to this writings that the American nation witnessed many social movements particularly by the blacks.# It is this which led to the later abolition of slavery in the American nation. Many riots by the blacks for example lead to the government’s respect of fact that every many in the community should gain access to education. It is this appreciation that saw the provision of elementary education to the blacks.

With the respect that Haynes had from the whites coupled with his respectful scholar skills of writing, he was able to engage the black community in fighting against the oppressive regime of the whites. It has been claimed that Haynes wrote of his political ideologies even before his ministerial engagement. Such could best be attributed to the fact that he had evidently been a victim of oppression under the indenture servitude in Granville since the age of five months when he was abandoned by his parents. Working as a farmer for 20 years without pay marked a great impact into is life in regard to the inhuman acts which the white posed on the blacks. It is however to be noted that Haynes still found better life compared to the other blacks in the community who were being subjected to slavery practices of the whites. This can be evidently claimed from the military operations during the American war for independence. Black slaves were forced to fight in the war. It was also clear that eminent mistreatment of the blacks was witnessed during the war. Blacks were supposed to be on the front line to confront the opponents with the whites acting as spectators in the war. This clearly showed that the death of blacks in the war had no human loss to the whites. Still to be noted here is the fact that many of the blacks were executed by the militia leadership citing military disobedience during war.

    It is the desire of every man to be respected and treated with fairness in the society. It is however a mark of extra ordinary abilities in the human person to stand up for the rights of others in the community. It is owing to this that Haynes has and will continue to be regarded and respected as the most profound driver of both the political revolutions and evangelical liberation reforms of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was through him that the blacks were able to gain access to elementary education. His actions and responses to the religious and political sectors of our nation are highly hailed as the foundation of the justice and fairness we currently have in the modern society.

Petrarch’s literary work, The Ascent of Mount Ventoux, details his journey of reaching the highest peak of the region that for so long had occupied his thoughts.  However, as the narration progresses, one realizes that the author’s need to be on a higher plane in order to have a better view of his surroundings is, in actuality, a symbolism of a deeper need of men to reach a higher plateau of spiritual consciousness in order to view his corporeal and spiritual weaknesses that are innate in his persona.  Petrarch, through this literary work, then, poses an introspection into the dilemma of the human soul, “that men go about to wonder at the heights of the mountain, the mighty waves of the sea…but themselves they consider not” (Halsall, 1998, p. 1).
  
Petrarch’s need of reaching the apex of the mountain, then, demonstrates his own spiritual need of being a step closer to God.  He came into a realization that his former journeys on the physical world, although had been most important for him then, is truly infinitely-miniscule compared to the journey that a person ought to embark on—one which concerns itself with his spirit and its relationship with his God.  If a person is to mature, both in spirit and in faith, then, it is important for him to climb his own mountain, view the real person he truly is, minus the pride and the deception that are innate to him, and marvel at the divine magnificence of the Creator.


    Petrarch’s The Ascent of Mount Ventoux had been able to clearly express without error, the essential need of the human soul to seek for an affirmation of his importance in his relationship with God.  For Petrarch as well as for all of us, this will result in an awakening where one will realize that his undertakings here on earth is really immaterial; that what matters most is to free himself from his own shackles and view his spirituality from a higher plateau where he is able to accept his life’s follies and follow the will of his Creator.

Born in backwoods Settlements in the Carolinas on March, 15th 1767 (Whitehouse, 2009, p1), Andrew Jackson’s life remains one of the most inspiring of the American presidents, exemplifying the American dream, (Freidel, 2006,p 12). Elected as the Seventh president of the United States in 1829 he had served several positions such as becoming the military governor of Florida in 1821 and is considered one of the pioneer democrats in American history.  Jackson’s early life was one of hardship; with his father dying three weeks prior to his birth, he received intermittent education before joining the American Revolutionary War in 1780, (Freidel, 2006, p14). Jackson was held prisoner by the British together with his brother, a period that was surrounded by great adversity. He witnessed the death of his two brothers and mother within the same year and was orphaned at the tender age of fourteen, with no immediate family, (Freidel, 2006).

Jackson received legal education in Salisbury, North Carolina, a feat that was made possible by teaching part time gaining admission into the bar in 1787. Nine years later, he was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention, a development that was instrumental in cementing Jackson’s reputation as a national figure. With the elevation of Tennessee as a State  within the year (1796), Jackson was elected into the US house of representatives, and a year later into the US Senate a post he held for less than a year opting to following his appointment as a Tennessee Supreme court, (Freidel, 2006, p 43).

    Brands (2006, p. 18) affirms that perhaps one of the greatest service of Jackson was that in the military that began with his appointment as the commander of the Tennessee Militia in 1801. Following the Fort Mims Massacre, which saw the death of hundreds of settlers, Jackson commanded a battalion against the Creek Indians who had carried out the massacre, defeating them in 1814. Jackson is also credited for imposing the Treaty of Fort Jackson upon the Creek enemies, a development that saw the wresting of millions of acres to white settlers. Brands, (2006) further notes that Jackson’s presidential quest was faced difficult challenges. Losing his first campaign 1n 1824, he suffered a series of character attacks in the 1828 although he still managed to secure nomination defeating the incumbent, John Adams Quincy to become the 7th president of the United States. Comparative to his predecessors, Jackson was perhaps the most popular to voters and was elected by popular vote, and during his service to the people, acted as the direct representative of the common men, (Freidel, 2006, p. 67).

Jackson’s actions were controversial although they shaped much of the American political and economic domains. One of the most astounding feat was the wiping away of the national debt reducing it to the lowest in nearly 4 decades.  Jackson also waged a steady campaign in opposition to the Bank of the United States which was run by private bankers noting that the bank controlled members of the congress, served the rich, centralized the country’s finances and served foreign interest. The campaign remains one of the most significant of Jackson’s legacies. Jackson was in opposition of the electoral college and called for its abolition, a call that was not implemented as the institution still defines American politics, (Freidel, 2006,p. 81).

Political scientists see Jackson as one of the pioneer advocates for rotation in office, a principle that is intentioned to preventing corruption associated with party loyalty and hero worship.  Jackson’s presidency was not without controversy; his implementation of the Trail of Tears campaign has been criticized for being a violent campaign to force native Americans to leave their homeland. This campaign was official following the passing of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and Freidel (2006,p. 83) documents that Jackson was instrumental in negotiating treaties for the removal of Indian tribes driving them south. This is a sad development since other whites referred to the natives as savages, calling for their total extermination although Jackson is also credited for affirming that the emigration should be voluntary, (Brands, 2006, p. 21).

    Jackson’s life story depict him as one of the most , fascinating, controversial and influential individuals to have served as the president of the United States. Although Jackson was not the only president who had been a Veteran in the American Revolution, he was the last one within the category and was honored for being a prisoner of war. From his youth as an orphan to a notable law experts, his rise as a military death to a keen and decisive president and up to his death, is a story of a man faced with considerable triumphs and tribulations.

Introduction  
By the end of World War II, all the great powers in the world collapsed except two of the Allied Powers: the United States and the Soviet Union. Soon after the war, an intense long-term rivalry began between them. One of the reasons that led to this rivalry was the two superpowers' intentions to rebuild Europe and Asia. This rivalry turned into a new form of wars called the “cold war”. A cold war is “a state of political tension and military rivalry between nations that stops short of full-scale war” (“Cold War,” 2009, p. 1).

How Did the Task of Rebuilding Europe Lead to This Intense Rivalry
Between the United States and the Soviet Union?  
World War II resulted in the destruction of Europe and the collapse of the great European empires. The United States and the Soviet Union were the only remaining great powers after the war. Each country found in this new situation an opportunity to become the new leading superpower in the world. They both saw in rebuilding Europe the perfect plan to spread their ideologies (Prakash, Adelman, Tignor, Aron, Kokin, & Marchland, 2002, p. 854).

Governments and nations of the countries of central and eastern Europe were unaware of many of the crimes that Joesph Stalin had committed during and after the war, and thus the image of his ideology (Communism) was clean for them. These countries had suffered from the horrors of Fascism during the war and found in Communism the hopes and dreams of their proletarian societies. They wanted the Soviet Union to help them create “powerful, modern, egalitarian societies in Europe” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861). The Soviet Union responded to these countries' wishes and established new Communist governments to rule them. The United States was worried of the possibility that the Soviets' ideological victory in these countries would be followed by the creation of several Communist blocs worldwide that could threaten western Europe and its interests overseas (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861).

The first major conflict between the two superpowers took place in 1948 in Germany. After World War II, Germany was partitioned into 4 territories to be ruled and rebuilt by 4 different powers, these powers were: Great Britain, the United States of America, France and the Soviet Union. The entire city of Berlin had been under the Soviet administration before the later postwar agreements that “stipulated that it was to be jointly administrated by all four powers” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861). The Soviets rejected this stipulation, and their response was isolating Berlin from the nearby cities by blocking all the major routes to it. This decision led to the launching of the “Berlin Airlift” plan (1948-1949) by the Allies to aid the city and save it from the Soviet blockade. The main objective of this plan was transporting the necessary aids to the western part of Berlin—because it belonged to the Allies—using airplanes in order to protect it from “capitulating to the Soviets” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861). The crisis ended in 1949 with Stalin's decision to end the blockade (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861).

As a consequence of the Berlin blockade crisis, Germany was split into two states, the “Communist German Democratic Republic” (east) and the “Federal Republic of Germany” (west). This division led to the erection of “Berlin Wall” later in 1961 to “insulate the east from the capitalist propaganda and halt a flood of emigrés fleeing Communism” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861). The division of Germany raised the tension between the two superpowers in the following years. In 1949, the United States and a number of western European countries—not including West Germany—formed a military alliance called the “North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)”. The main purpose of forming this alliance was protecting western Europe from any possible aggression by the Soviet Union (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861). In 1955, tension arose between the two superpowers after adding West Germany to the NATO alliance (“North Atlantic,” 2009, p. 1). The Soviet Union responded by forming another military alliance called the “Warsaw Pact”. The Warsaw Pact consisted of  the Soviet Union, East Germany and a number of central and eastern European countries where Stalin had establish Communist dictatorships (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 862).

The policies of U.S. President Harry S. Truman played a big role in intensifying the rivalry between the two superpowers. One of his most remarkable contributions was the “Truman Doctrine” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861). It was a strategy that he issued in 1947 to contain the influence of Communism in Greece and Turkey. This strategy depended mainly on providing the two countries with economic and military aids (“Cold War,” 2009, p. 1). Although the Truman Doctrine was originally directed to aiding these two countries, it soon became a general policy of dealing with Communism in Europe. President Truman assigned the task of containing Communism in Europe to General George C. Marshall. General Marshall was the Secretary of State in president Truman's administration. His most notable contribution to the U.S. foreign policy was the launching of  the “Marshall Plan” (1948-1952). During the lifespan of the Marshall Plan, the United States provided many European countries with financial aids that exceeded $13 billion in total. The Truman's administration hoped that this plan “would dim Communism's appeal by fostering economy prosperity, muting class tensions, and integrating western European nations into an alliance of capitalist democracies” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861). Stalin was worried of the negative effects of the Marshall Plan on the appeal and the dominance of Communism in Europe (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 861).

It is noticed that nearly all the crises that took place between the United States and the Soviet Union were either direct or indirect consequences of the task of rebuilding Europe.

How Did the Task of Rebuilding Asia Lead  to This Intense Rivalry
Between the United States and the Soviet Union?  
At the end of World War II, the age of the Japanese empire ended by Japan's surrender to the Allied powers. It became no longer a threat to the United States with “its dreams of dominating East Asia dashed and its homeland devastated” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 881). Japan wanted to adopt a new ideology to rebuild its economic and political systems. Both Capitalism and Communism were attractive choices for Japan, and the United States rushed to suggest its ideology to end Japan's confusion (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 881). Japan became the Unites States' new ally, and therefore the United States decide to provide it with military, economic and technological support:
(1) Military Support: the United States provided Japan with military support and
 protection from any possible aggressors (particularly from the Soviet Union) (Prakash
et al., 2002, p. 881)
(2) Economic Support: the United States decided to follow a new strategy for supporting
Japan's economy rather than the one that was followed in Europe's case. Instead of providing financial aids, the United States decided to open its domestic markets to Japan's exports even though the Japanese products were “rudimentary” in the early years of applying the strategy (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 881).
(3) Technological Support: there were no restrictions on technology transfers to Japan “with a greater percentage of up-to-date equipment than any other country except perhaps West Germany” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 881).

The United States was worried of the possible consequences of the rising of Communism in some Asian countries like China (Chinese Communists) and Korea (Soviet-backed North Korea). After the Korean War (1950-1953), the United States' anti-Communist policies became stricter and more protective, and the government looked for the proper methods to apply these policies. The policymakers believed that Japan had the potentials for becoming the United States' shield against the spread of Communism in Asia. Therefore, the United States began a series of negotiations with Japan regarding its new anti-Communist policies. It offered Japan economic and technological support and a permission to rearm itself, but it stipulated that “American troops could be stationed in Japan” (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 865).

The task of rebuilding Asia intensified the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union because it led to the establishing of a Capitalist bloc that could threaten the presence of Communism in Asia. Moreover, it resulted in ensuring the presence of U.S. Military in Japan—which raised the tension and the possibility of adopting military solutions in the region (Prakash et al., 2002, p. 865-81).

In the seminal book Propaganda, Edward Bernays instills in the readers the realization that propaganda might be playing a greater role in society and in our own everyday living than we might normally be aware of.

The book is an insightful elaboration of the pervasive role that propaganda has come to acquire in modern life. The present means of communication enable instant dissemination of huge amount of data worldwide. In a democracy, every sphere of life involves various available options.

The theme of the book may be stated as being the inevitable, widespread and effective role that propaganda plays in making decisions in all sectors – such as electing the government, buying consumer products, or watching a move – manageable for the masses in democratic society.

The book contains a deep reflection on the way propaganda willy-nilly influences people’s living. The influence of mass communication in several key sectors is dwelt with at length. The extent to which people are determined in their perceptions and actions by the “invisible” elite in society is highlighted. The author also devotes considerable analysis to the mechanics involved in successful propaganda.

Evidence for the Central Theme
The book begins with its key ideas stated clearly and forcefully. “The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.” (Bernays, 1928, 9).

Bernays explains how the very plethora of choices that confronts the individual necessitates their being filtered down to a manageable number. Propaganda helps render the numerous and confusing viable options limited and workable. Bernays describes this process as occurring in almost every sphere of life, be it the polity, industry, culture, art, and the like.

According to Bernays, this differentiation and gradation among alternatives is achieved through propaganda, and it serves several useful functions in society. The people who are responsible for shaping people’s thoughts, tastes, decisions and reactions are relatively few, and it is they who are the most powerful persons in society.

I think Bernays provides ample evidence for his thesis throughout the book. He delves into such disparate sectors as the polity, industry, art, culture, to illustrate how dependent most processes in society have grown on ongoing propaganda.

For instance, for the elections, the electorate has hundreds of options. However, those involved in propaganda make the practical choice limited to barely two or three. This works out in the best interests of everyone.

Likewise, a factory today cannot afford to wait for consumers to learn about its goods by word of mouth from past users. Propaganda is employed even before the goods are manufactured to create a demand for them among the people.

I cannot offhand suggest any other source that the author could have drawn evidence for his theme from, though he might well have elaborated it.

By Way of a Conclusion
The author has been called “the father of the field of public relations”. He pioneered the scientific technique of shaping and manipulating public opinion. The book does not so much advocate the use of propaganda in society, as points out that it is already a ubiquitous and widespread practice.

The book has enabled me to acquire a new insight and a fresh perspective into the workings of modern society. It has helped me realize that public opinion has always played a key role in history.

Bernays makes a valid assertion by observing that tremendous power must invariably come to rest with the few who actually know how to manipulate public opinion in modern times of instant communication.

Being aware of the thesis that Bernays expounds will perhaps help me take my sundry decisions in life more consciously than ever before.

Just like the Holocaust of Germany that caused “Reign of Terror” in the political world—the experience of the Great Depression Era in the US caused so much misery and pain economically to each and every citizen that echoed and pierces down to the loneliest souls, young or old.

 Whatever may be the reasons to be blamed for their situation at that time-whether, it be the way Martin DeVries (who became rich during that era) views things at the microlevel as, the contributory factor was the buying of $20 branded clothing instead of an Arrow Shirt worth just $2 which he claims to be of total or great waste of money than saving for the days to come (McElvaine, R. 1983); or the Wall Street Market Crash that had “domino” effect not just in the American Economy but also brought precipitous effect around the world. To put things, the conditions at that time was just simply “very steep”. There was no one to be blamed—not even the government, but it was the people who suffered greatly.

Tom Kromer's Book (1986) “Waiting for Nothing” depicted and portrayed the story of a young man desperately and disparagingly looking for a job but no where to find one. Hence, was forced to live life in outrageous streets with fellow scavengers. But living in a far away farmland was not an exception at all : poverty and hunger was even worst. Dire appeal to authorities were of no resolve, the system was totally draining. The people and every situation getting restless.

This episode of Dark American History not only taught each citizen the value of moderate spending and securing resources for oneself, as well shedlight that governments must foresee things ahead in order to prevent another wreck of the Great Depression Experience.

George Washington was one of the greatest and most influential people with his remarkable and fundamental contributions in the history of United States of America and across the world. He is recognized as the father of our country and regarded as a patriot for he struggled with utmost courage and earned victory during revolutionary wars in realization of American independence from expanding colonial threats. His rich and exceptional experiences as a soldier in his earliest years, had helped him attained his personal and political career. He became the first president, provisioned on the laws and regulations that founded vital constitutional and political functions of U.S. government and helped institute the first independent and democratic system of leadership in America.

Early Life and Career
Early days of George Washington was narrated in Irving’s book, George Washington: A Biography. George Washington, born on Feb. 22, 1732 at Bridges Creek, was from an English ancestry who migrated to Virginia and first child of Augustine Washington from his second family. During his childhood, he had no formal schooling but learned basic education privately with his older half-brother along their neighborhood. His brother took care of him when their father died. It was when his brother married from a rich and influential family in Virginia, that motivated George to work as a surveyor in their lands at a young age and soon chosen to be county surveyor. But at the death of his ailing brother in 1752, he inherited its wealth and estates, and later on, as inspired by his brother as well, to pursue a military career.

He became a colonel during the French and Indian War, then commander of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, which finally defeated the British. He turned out to be a prominent officer with the victorious battles he thrived in these historical wars. In between struggles, he married a widow, Martha Custis. He started to enter politics in the House of Burgesses and it was in 1789 that he was elected unanimously as the country's first president where he served two terms, though he rejected a third term and soon retired. But in 1798, he once more became a Commander in Chief of the Army.
Contributions to U.S. History
George Washington’s significant contributions to U.S. history can be based on his achievement during the chronological revolutionary wars that he had conquest over ancient states’ rivals and his crucial position to be elected as the first American president.

On Revolutionary Wars
It was in 1753 at Virginia militia, that George Washington, at an early age, started and developed his military and political career. At the dawn of the French and Indian War, with his undeniably courage, he was first sent as a messenger to the French territory; then followed by battles of defeats due to lack of military training such as he was strained to hand over Fort Necessity and then resigned. But when he joined British General Edward Braddock in fighting with the powerful French, the general died and Washington notably remained to be the sole Virginia officer to endure that time, despite an illness and depression. Then it was when he became the commander in chief that led the Virginia militia and went with Gen. John Forbes in the seizure of Fort Duquesne. During those battles, Washington started to progress on his military skills and turned into an established soldier with strong understanding and administration in handling efficiently with communal mandate.

After successful defense of Virginia’s borders and his resignation to military force, George Washington first entered politics in the House of Burgesses. Then, it was also the onset of his disputes to British colonial plans that time, despite his efforts of creating diplomatic relations with the latter; he was chosen by Congress in 1775 as commander in chief of the Continental Army in the Revolution War. With George Washington’s intelligent schemes, he had fought the British for the independence of United States. Though he experienced different obstacles that he did not gain overall support of his army in his directions and his group encountered many defeats before winning over Great Britain’s massive army. Initial success of Washington’s perceptive strategies is its aggressive command to British armed forces to leave Boston; then followed by downfalls in New York and New Jersey in 1776, and in the following year, Brandywine and Germantown in Pennsylvania. In subsequent years, with increased and joint forces with the French army, as it conceded on American freedom, Washington’s great command and his allies once again won in the Battle of Monmouth. It was in 1781 that the war ended with the apprehension of Yorktown, the outset of American victory.
George Washington’s outstanding traits helped him prevailed and triumphed in his bravery to fight those hard line battles for the attainment of America’s freedom. These positive and brilliant attributes that Washington acquired were portrayed as an unusual man deserving of trust, steadfast character, ruling passions and driving force of ambition which also aided him in his assumption of presidency in the consequent years (McDonalds 134).

American Presidency
After eight years as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and since of his military expertise in his battles particularly during the American revolutionary war, George Washington was elected unanimously in the presidential elections in 1789, and was once again reelected for the highest government position in 1792. Then, it was his personal choice to retire over the proposition for a third term. It is believed that the office of president of the U.S. would not be formed if it was not George Washington as the first preference, towards a republican government, because of the inferior presence of administrators in the radical state organizations and multifaceted skepticism and apprehension for an executive power by American constituents in the manifestation of its deficiency in the Articles of Confederation (McDonalds 134).

In Don Higginbotham’s report of George Washington’s Contributions to the Office of the Presidency, he explained Washington’s three significant contributions as follow: first, the initial chief executive power was consented by Congress in the Constitutional Convention in 1787, as they undeniably delegated Washington to assume the position primarily due to his devoted reverence for civilian control of military as shown during his headship of the Continental army and prudent use of presidential authority that would set as an exemplary model to succeeding executive leaders. Second, Washington’s strong belief and support for the potentials and abilities of the office of presidency, as instigated by him, in its unifying role, firm control over the executive branch over legislative bodies of Congress and Senate, formulation of foreign policies, and allocation of new responsibilities such as appointment of ambassadors by the Chief Justice. Third, further contributions were the inadvertent formation of presidential span as restricted to two terms only when Washington opted to retire in declining governance for the third time, retention of Vice Presidency, and resident of the White House would take effect at his political party’s head, which also stimulated the foundation of party systems.

Another study by Rozell in his book, Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American political tradition, describes George Washington’s presidency and exercise of executive privileges such as disclosure and transparency in the administration, regardless of its flaws and lapses, but if said information has detrimental effects to public interest, the president had the right and good judgment to hold back such information; institution of executive branch secrecy in negotiations; and agreement on Congress’ liberty to inquest and function in the system of creating treaties.

The film Cold Mountain follows the story of Inman, played the Jude Law, and of Ada, played by Nicole Kidman. Inman and Ada met at a town in North Carolina, and as their relationship grew further, Inman decided to enlist himself to the Confederate army. The film opens with a scene at the entrenchment of the Confederate troops at Petersburg which was under siege by the Union. When the Union surprised them by blowing up the trap that lay under them, both Inman and Oakley, played by Lucas Black, were stunned and saw a rushing Union force attacking; the Union lost this charge. Oakley got wounded and was sent to the hospital while Inman and a platoon of Confederate troops hunted down trapped Union troops within their lines, wherein he got shot by one and later sent to a hospital. While Inman was on the battlefield, Ada was trying to field a farm with the aid of her neighbors and the mentorship of Ruby Thewes, played by Renée Zellweger. Both Inman and Ada kept exchanging letters until Inman deserted the army and was hunted down by the Confederate Home Guard—a band that hunted down and apprehends deserters, but was originally established to keep the peace within the Confederate states. At the same time, Ada and Ruby were being hunted down by the Confederate Home Guard for harboring deserters at a cabin in Cold Mountain. Inman finally made it to Cold Mountain and reunited with Ada, but he would die from a wound after fighting off the Confederate Home Guard. The last scene shows that Ada had a daughter with Inman.

The movie is a love story between Inman and Ada during the time of the civil war. The letters connect them to each other which is a great touch to the movie since it helps the transition from Inman’s point of view (POV) to Ada’s POV and vice versa easier to digest. The key strength of the story is that it follows the lives of a deserter and a Confederate citizen. Basically, it shows people of how a deserter is treated by the Confederates, or by any army, and how the home guards accuse and abuse the citizens, especially those that are harboring deserters. The film also features instances of how the Union side acted towards the Confederate citizens; such is the case of Sara—played by Natalie Portman—wherein Union soldiers tried to rape her and steal food. Thus, the overall strength of the story lies in its in-depth look on the POVs of both the soldiers and the citizens during the civil war.

While it may be a nice romantic movie to watch, it still has some flaws that can ruin the essence of the historical event that is the American civil war. For instance, it may be successful in showing the points of view of soldiers, citizens, and deserters, but it strays off from the actual civil war and into the home front itself wherein Confederates hunt down these deserters. In short, it does not help in any way in educating people about the actual civil war, except for the first part which is the only major encounter between the Union and the Confederates.

Overall, the movie features the struggles of citizens, deserters, and soldiers during the civil war. However, it strays away from the actual historical context of the war. Rather than concentrate on the encounters between the Union and the Confederates, it tracks down the life of a deserter and his lover in separate sequences. Hence, the movie does not really educate people about the actual history of the war, but it highlights how the people lived during the whole event. .

Technological innovations have not only changed the social relations between nations but is has also revolutionized the philosophical and psychological ways of thinking in the world. In addition these technological advances have steered the consecution of human events, from the creation of the first civilization, to the decline of the Soviet Union, to the rise of terrorist groups.

Boot (2006) writes that warfare has undergone a series of phases due to technological advancement. This writer in his book has discussed the various weaponry innovations that have enabled the gradual change in how civilizations fight enabling them to gain power to rule the world. The phases he identifies include Gunpowder age, the combat which was overtaken by the technology of fire arm age which in turn came to be revolutionized by Swedish King Adolphus Gustavus by introducing the notion of cavalries and the importance of artilleries.

All these are the transformations of tactics of warfare that have led to the rise of civilizations over the world. This term paper seeks to explore in depth how advances in communication systems, computer systems and nuclear technology have led to the age of globalization (Fernández-Armesto 2001).
Impact of advancement in communication systems.

A technological advancement that changed the way people interact was the invention of the telephone during the 19th Century. Prior to the introduction of the telephone countries relied on letters and telegrams. This would take long and the feedback would be delayed and the inconveniences created were numerous. With the telephone communication was made easier and it paved the way to the present day satellite communication and finally the internet. Through improvement in communication trade was enhanced and the world has progressed and become a global village. With faster dissemination of information between individuals from different countries it has enhanced interaction and formation of international corporations. Some super powers have emerged whereby some countries are ranked very powerful and influence the world policies on trade, weapons and in other areas as well.

Looking at how people interact with mobile telephones it is hard to imagine of a time when there were not telephones at all. These days communication has been revolutionized and it is even possible to communicate with a person across the globe and see them through the connect video–communications. This is a trend that has caught on for instance directors of a multinational corporation are able to hold a joint board meeting with boards of their associate in other countries in real time through the satellite video communications.
These advancements in communication have been a major boost to the process of industrialization in countries. It was now easier for countries to out source for labor without necessarily having to ship these workers to the developed countries. The industries are set up in the developing countries where labor its cheaper but through ease in communication then operation in these industries is run from those developed countries.

The present day Iraq was the land of Sumerians who are credited for developing a scheme of writing down as a mode of communication (Steele 2007). This development was it benchmark towards becoming the first civilization. Their development was instigated by the sudden requirement for political, property and commercial recordings. Their strong political organizational structures ensured that they won at battles and conquered many slaves at battles and thus had labor force. As they had invented the system of writing they were respected for their contribution and thus were considered a force to be reckoned with. Writing was genuinely important because during warfare information could be passed from allied countries about how to bring down a common enemy. Through writing other technological inventions came about and by and by the world is at era of information technology. People hope to use technology to create a global village that links all human beings across the globe. Their assumptions are that this will enhance the global economy since people will have access to markets anywhere in the world (Cabrera 2004). In a view shared by most people the free flow of information will enhance democracy and foster equity. Internet with web programs like the Web 3.0 that has been created to be intelligent is a breakthrough towards understanding all mankind and thus a welcome technological advancement.

The first computer was developed in early nineteen forties. The main aim was for governments to use it to enhance their warfare tactics and for the purposes of research. Networking of computer happened in late nineteen sixties whereby four computes were linked through a network. With time this network expanded beyond that one region and now we have the internet that connects the whole world. This technological advancement has had the greatest impact especially in the social and economical fields in countries around the world. Research is being done to further advance the technology being used presently to a semantic or a web 3.0 which is believed will have a greater impact than web 2.0 which is being used currently (Cabot 2003).

Advances in nuclear technology have had an impact on philosophical, social and psychological thinking. Nuclear technology is used to generate power, it is used to make sophisticated weapons by some warring countries and has been used for research purposes. Albert Einstein was afraid that through innovation and creativity some countries would develop powerful nuclear weapons with which to fight their enemies. His fears were true and now America with other countries have been trying to fight the use of nuclear energy to develop weapons of mass destruction. This has brought about cooperation among countries who share the course. Consequently this cooperation enhances globalization since countries unite to fight a common enemy as this enemy is a threat to all then is part of what globalization is about.

A Poem from the Twentieth Century
One of the great poets of the twentieth century was T. S. Eliot. His poems were diverse and explored a variety of topics. One of his greatest works was The Waste Land in which he wrote five poems. In his work he explores the importance of innovation and exploration as a way of learning about life. A lot can be said about the poems in the waste land but the most important aspects of the poems is style of allusion which he has used to pass his message. The poems are almost prophetic and allude to the importance of creativity and exploration. The shift in the voice used in the various poems shows that life never stops and is always about changing. Nothing is permanent but as everything keeps on moving, the balance still remains which implies that change is good. According to T. S. Eliot the only for a person to learn about life is if they explore all the possibilities and if they are willing to change and improve themselves (Eliot 1961).
In his poems Eliot uses so many allusions and the only way to understand the poems is through delving deeper to understand what the poet was alluding to. In essence Eliot was talking about how life advances through people who are willing to take chances and pursue wisdom. Eliot believed a human being is able to reach his full potential if they are self-aware and have explored their inner being. This is the same with technology. All the advancements have resulted from understanding the nature of mans needs. With the idea that there is there room for a lot more thereby people are exploring more ways of advancing further through the pursuit of wisdom. People have realized how human lives can be transformed which was alluded to by T. S. Eliot in most of his poems (Eliot 1961)

This is a case of some Africans, captured and sold to slavery, who rebelled or, put in the language of their ‘owners’, mutinied and killed two sailors. They were under the ownership of two Cubans, Ruiz and Montez, and were on transit to a Caribbean plantation. These two were spared on condition that they return the Africans home. Deception ensued about sailing the ship and they landed on the shores of Montauk, Long Island in the United States of America, and steered off to New London, where the slaves were arrested after the two Cubans denounced them as pirates and murderers. (The Amistad Case)

A lot of deception is noted in this case, and it majorly builds up to one question: is an African (slave in this context) a human being or property? Did the slaves have any rights? Again, it is wise to note that this Amistad Case took place after the abolition of slave trade in the world. Was it therefore a clear illegality in a just world? Their act of killing the captors and subsequently their mutiny seemed to make the case worse and more complex. The complexities involved included the slaves being taken to New London instead of the nearby New York, simply because slavery had not yet been illegalized at New London.

The Amistad case took a twist with the involvement of international governments. The Spanish Government wanted the slaves extradited to Cuba where the laws there favored slavery. The then US president, Van Buren too wanted the same to avoid his proslavery attitude, but the case was already in the US jurisdiction. There was many stakes in the case to be gained (or lost depending on the way it was handled). According to Osagie, the entrepreneurial pro-slavery government sensed possible political potential in this case which came at a time when the elections were near. (Osagie) There were reservations though because the politically charged environment could not enable Van Buren to hand over the Africans to Spanish authorities much as he could have wished to.

All from the outset deemed the Africans because of their color (Gordon-Reed). The result was a contest between the natural rights of an individual and property rights in slavery. This paved way for a showdown between the abolitionists and those favoring slavery, and the ensuing legal and diplomatic battles to follow. (Osagie) With the abolitionists on board, the slaves had fair representation and they won their freedom. Nevertheless, the slavers were not happy. They appealed in the Supreme Court in their greed for salvage claims and this ushered in John Quincy Adams to the scene in defense of the slaves.

According to Denise Henderson, Adams’ defense for the Africans was in stages. The first one was the Amistad Case itself in which he began by mentioning the necessity of the case being decided based on universal natural law. This meant that no other arguments were to take center stage at the expense of the rights and liberties of the slaves. Adams mentioned a fact that the Africans knew of no other laws but those of nature. This he prayed that the Court should deliver to them. He pointed out anomalies in the government that leant on the side of slave traders, which of course went against the Declaration of Independence. According to him, the case was in front of the Supreme Court because the whole nation was virtually in sympathy with the slave traders. This sympathy was a gross violation of the statutes that make up the United States of America.

The second line of defense was the inalienable rights vs. public vengeance. This was a reaction to a letter written to the Secretary of State by the Spanish envoy to the US; that the slaves be handed over for the satisfaction of public vengeance. According to the US constitution, slaves were persons, not property. They therefore deserved the human dignity that befits a man. The Spanish government’s want for the slaves to burn them in vengeance against what they had done was therefore according to him a mockery of the justice system.

In his ruling, Justice Story, after considering the supplications made in the Court, declared that the Africans were free people, having been illegally kidnapped in Africa. They were unlawfully transported to Cuba to be sold as slaves against all laws and treaties made with Spain. These laws declared that the African slave trade was unlawful. They had thus been contravened. This meant that the Africans had no case to answer. (The Amistad Case: Supreme Court Arguments and Decision)

The Nixon Administration is fairly regarded as the period of consolidation and retreat. On the one hand, Richard Nixon was able to address the inconsistencies in politics, law enforcement, and international diplomacy left by his predecessors. On the other hand, the challenges which Nixon faced upon taking office simply did not leave him any other choice but required immediate resolution. Discrimination, employment, desegregation of schools, drug wars and youth revolts against the War in Vietnam created a controversial political environment, which Nixon as the new President was expected to balance and control.

In many aspects, the rhetoric and policy promoted by Nixon were the natural and anticipated reaction to the policies promoted in the 1960s. This reaction was particularly obvious in civil rights domains, including construction and women’s rights. “During his first term, President Nixon reaffirmed the policy barring discrimination by government contractors by directing all federal agencies and departments to review their programs to make sure they were in accordance with Executive Order No. 11246” (Amaker 21). Needless to say that the Executive Order No. 11246 was the product of Lyndon Johnson’s desire to promote equal opportunity in employment, and for the purpose of the political and social stability Nixon simply could not ignore the emerging trends. His equal opportunity endeavors were particularly drawn and aimed at the construction industry, but the majority of his equal opportunity decisions and policies were upheld by courts (Amaker 22). Only during his second term was Nixon able to expand the role of the attorney general with respect to the enforcement of Title VI, which gave him authority to develop and review the standards for equal opportunity employment (Amaker 22).

The response to the Civil Rights initiatives of the 1960s was also reflected in Nixon’s commitment to women’s rights. The year 1964 was marked with the development and adoption of the 1964 Civil Rights Act which forever changed the principles and vision of equal rights in America; and to support the societal striving to gender equity, Nixon could not but create a task force which would monitor women’s rights and responsibilities in employment (Amaker 22). The ban on sex discrimination also extended to cover various educational programs, but these initiatives, unfortunately for many, were also associated with Nixon’s reluctance to reinforce and participate in various school desegregation activities. Even despite that Nixon recognized and justified the decision of Brown vs. Board of Education decision, he never wanted to speed up the pace of desegregation and was openly against busing (Amaker 23). This reluctance and this lack of equal opportunity stimuli in school environment were partially justified by the growing Nixon’s attention to youth revolts and the political shift in the drug law enforcement policies in America.

The 1960s were marked with the growing social and political tensions between youth organizations and groups and the American diplomacy. The War in Vietnam generated public opposition and turned the 1960s into the age of barricades. Thousands of young people voted against the conflict with Vietnam and were not willing to accept the growing number of casualties. Bearing in mind the political importance of the young population and looking forward into his political future, Nixon created a new political vision in America which had to lead the conflict in Vietnam to its logical end and to create a situation in which America would still look the winner (Amaker 24). The politics of Vietnamization, the withdrawal of the American troops from Vietnam, and finally the end of the conflict were the distinctive features of Nixon’s political strategy. As any other President, Nixon could not ignore the trends and political inconsistencies left by his political predecessors and being torn between different political options, Nixon had to choose the best political path.
This path and this reaction were also reflected in the changing rhetoric of drug law policies during Nixon’s presidency: in response to relatively calm attitudes toward drug violations between 1960 and 1969, Nixon actually initiated the new period of social and political preoccupation with drug issues (Sarat 116). The center of the then political discourse was in identifying youth as the victims of drug trade, and frequent arrests of bid dealers had to compensate for the lack of attention to drug issues at the beginning of the 1960s.

Unfortunately, not everything in Nixon’s political reactions was adequate and anticipated. In many aspects, Nixon missed or was not able to address numerous political issues, from desegregation at schools to the lack of attention toward minor drug dealers. Nevertheless, it would be fair to say that the Nixon administration, at least throughout its first years, was directed toward the policies and problems that had emerged in the early 1960s and required immediate political resolution.

The American civil war was sparked by a number of reasons some of which can be traced back to the American colonization though slavery issue was the immediate main cause of the conflict that led to the war. The southern politicians were hard on defending slavery by controlling the federal government and maintaining balance in the senate through addition of states like Maine, Missouri, California and Minnesota to the Union. The southern states still held on to the agrarian plantation economy the reason to why they were pro slavery while the northern states embraced industrialization which led to urbanization, increased technology and population. These differences were further widened with the election of anti- slavery president from the north which was set back to the southern politicians who wanted to maintain control of the government so as to defend slavery (Hickman, 2009).

Majority of young enrolled for the war to defend their comrades who are the family and friends and also to defend the cause which was to protect their government’s ideologies. Soldiers from both the union and confederacy were optimistic of winning hoping that the war would last a very short time, thus swathe reason to join the war. From the larger perspective, soldiers from both the union and the confederacy aimed at protecting their respective governments. The northern soldiers fought against the revolts that had refused the constitution and the union while the southern soldiers fought for the maintenance of state rights, secession and constitution that would enable them maintains their southern way of life (Turcker, n.d.). The confederates fought for defense of their land, flag, constitution and liberty of the whites while the union fought for the flag which they saw as the America’s liberty symbol. They also fought for the nation as well as the constitution claiming to fight for the best government ever in the world (McPherson et al, 2000).

A good number of confederate and union soldiers were volunteers protecting their personal issues like family and economic sacrifices since they claimed that the pay was very poor and unreliable (McPherson, 1997). They felt that the war was a threat to their families and their land which they aimed to protect other than fight to protect the government’s ideologies. Honor associated with fighting in the war was another motivating factor for the young men enrolling for the war as they longed for the honor and appraisal associated with the aftermath of the war. The southern men pressurized the young men to enroll for honor’s sake who did so to avoid being criticized that they lost because their young men are cowards. Abraham Lincoln listed reasons like patriotism, employment and courage to encourage the young men to join the war most of which heeded to gain the society respect (McPherson, 1997).

However, as the war went on and got intense, many soldiers lost the fighting interest due to the unexpected longer time the war was taking and sought for means to avoid facing the bullet like feigning sickness or disappearing whenever an opportunity arose. Others disappeared in the battle field while others enrolled for “bombproof” jobs like clerks, hospital attendants and alike to keep distance from the battle field (McPherson, 1997). Some soldiers confessed that the battle experience was horrific and found it better to avoid the battle field by opting for the other job. The battles argument of “rich man's war and poor man's fight” led to many soldiers running from the fighting to Britain, for example. In 1964, the southern felt they were losing which demoralized the soldiers from fighting (Harper, 2002)

Some young men had joined the military either for monetary gain or gain of position in the army, this unfortunately led to loss of fighting interest in such young men. The anticipation that the war would take a short time had vanished and it seemed that it was far from getting over. Some soldiers thought of what they had left behind and longed to get back to their families and property. The fear of death in others made them think of means of bringing the war to an end, thus if they let go off and loose the war, it would be over and they get back home safe (Gallagher et al 2000).
In conclusion, the war led to loss of many lives including the assassination of President Lincoln five days after it ended. However, the cause led to amendments in the constitution like abolition of slavery, legal protection to all races and equality in voting. The cause was nearly solved.

The Abolitionist Movement came as realization of the sin of slavery. It was seen that slavery was not Christian and so, it was a sin committed. It emerged in the early 1830’s. It came about as a means to end the barbaric treatment that the Blacks were receiving from their masters. The slave owners feared the end of slavery and that is where they strongly opposed the Abolitionist movement which sought to free the slaves under their custody. The Whites had various negative feelings towards the Blacks and hence they brought strong opposition to the Abolitionist Movement. (Davis2006)

Slavery held the growth of the economy by a large percentage. This was because the slaves offered free labor to their owners. They were used by their owners to work in their farms, do all sort of manual work and also perform their household chores. The farms brought income to the American White. They really needed the services offered by the slaves, as the slaves would do much work than an employed person and at no pay. So, without the services of the slaves it would be so hard for the agriculture sector. There plantations would become a waste as there would be no available labor. It would farther increase the cost of production as it would require the slave owners to employ the slaves.

The Northerners slave owners wanted to maintain the status quo. The House of Representatives refused to upgrade slaves to second class citizens. At the status of a slave, one would not make any decision about his or her life; one was not able to own anything. The slaves did not enjoy any rights as they were not protected by the constitution. The Massachusetts House of Representatives refused to pass legislation against slavery. They argued that passing such legislation would disturb unity of the states. They saw that, it would disrupt the harmony of their North with that of their neighbors- the South. The North and the South was bond by the existing trade between the two of them. (Davis 2006)

The slave owners carried a negative and contemptuous attitude towards the slaves and were characterized by various arguments brought forth by the white farmers. The House of Representatives members argued that is would be ‘dangerous and unsound for the Negros’ to hold public office (Davis 2006). Giving the Blacks the right to vote was a ‘crazy idea’. They felt that the Blacks were not civilized enough to vote or even hold public office. They argued that they need some more time for them to be civilized. Most of the White farmers also believed that the Blacks would be ruined if they were offered their civil rights. (Davis 2006)

These sentiments were all out of the racial prejudice by the Whites. They considered blacks as inferior based on the skin color. They argued that there homeland- Africa- was a dark continent which was far behind. They argued that Blacks were only capable of doing the manual work in the farms or some other form of physical labor. This was simply because they were not civilized enough.

The whites of North America feared that the freed Blacks would compete for the jobs which were only held by the Whites. They were not ready to work with the Blacks. The freed slaves had to start their new mode of life. To start of, they needed some source of income. Some Blacks hoped to settle down as farmers. They used a slogan ‘forty acres and a mule’. Some of the North Whites opposed antislavery as they had not registered their slaves for emancipation. During this time, every master was compensated for every slave freed. (Davis 2006)

Though Abolitionist Movement got the various obstacles, the movement used various ways to campaign for antislavery. They used religion, politics, media and even through radical or militant ways to attain their course. To start of, we shall look at how the Abolitionist Movement used religion to fight slavery. The church was the earliest venue to condemn slavery. They stated that it was a sin for one to enslave another as all were equal before the eyes of God. The slaveholders were active members of the church. They stated that it was hypocritical for them to be church members whilst they were slaveholders. Emancipation was their only way for them to repent. Religious Abolitionists were able to get allies who included the well organized Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian Antislavery movements.

An era named The Second Great Awakening that was characterized by huge religious revival changes started emerging. This saw the growth of the Baptist, Methodist and the Presbyterian churches. This era saw more and more of the Blacks being absorbed into the church. It also led to rise of the spirit of the abolitionism. This period was crucial as it united the slaves through the church and also was a period for social reforms. The Religious Abolitionists were also able to build their own learning institutions that included the founding of Bates College and also the Oberlin College. The church was a great platform to host the demands of antislavery because of having the capacity to attract huge audiences. (Davis 2006)

The Abolitionists also involved themselves in politics to campaign for antislavery. There was the launching of the Liberty Party in 1840. Its main manifesto was the immediate emancipation of slaves and the immediate repeal of all legislation with racial prejudice as it was immoral and unethical. The party did not get the support of Garrisonian faction who supported no political participation. It was not able to get many of the votes in the 1840 and 1844 elections. In 1848, a faction of the party merged with the ‘Whigs’ and some of the Democrats to form the Free Soil Party. This was an anti-extensionist party that was against the extension of slavery to the western states. With this it was able to capture more votes than the Liberty Party. Liberty men would not accept the compromised position of the new party. The Liberty Party therefore broadened its platform to a universal reform. It had the argument that through the constitution, the Congress could sanction the activity of slavery. (Davis 2006)

The Blacks became radical when the Fugitive Slave Law was passed. It stated that any Federal marshal who did not arrest a runaway slave was liable to a $1000 fine and anybody aiding a freeing slave was also liable to a fine. John Brown was able to recruit young black and white abolitionists. He was aided by antislavery radicals mainly from small radical political abolitionist factions. He organized an attack at the Harpers Ferry, a federal arsenal, but it did not spark predicted mass slave insurrection. All the various ways used to fight slavery helped to curb the vice. Abolitionist continued to fight for the rights of the African-American even after the civil was (Davis 2006). The media was also used to pass information to the Blacks. There was ‘The Liberator’ a paper published by Garrison. There were also publications by other Blacks. They all preached for unity among the Blacks. They also praised the achievements of the Blacks.

The abolitionists were opposed to the House of Representatives. This is because it refused to make the necessary legal reforms which would sanction the vice of slavery. Strong opposition also came from the North from the Massachusetts ship manufacturers. They made the slave ships which were specially made to transport the captured slaves to America and other lands. They felt that their business would go into ruins once slavery was abolished. Abolishing slave trade meant that their ships were no longer required. Their strong influence made things for the Abolitionist Movement very hard. It made it hard for them to campaign for their goal. (Davis 2006)