American History

The essay is about the state of the University of Washington before during and after the great depression of the 1930s.  The changes in the students union, teachers, administration and infrastructure have been clearly discussed. The contents of the essay discuss the major changes at the University of Washington due to the reduced incomes and finances during the period of depression. In-text citation using Chicago referencing style has been clearly done. The references are listed at the end of the essay.

University of Washington 
The financial crisis during the great depression caused major changes in the structure of the University of Washington. The behavior patterns of the people were not consistent with the changes that occur during a financial crisis. People reduced their expenditure on education by reducing their budgets on education and a few people enrolled for colleges and universities. During hard economic situations people increase their expenditure on education and a great number is enrolled in colleges and universities so as to acquire skills and secure jobs. This was contrary in the case of the people of Washington during the great depression of the 1930s. Colleges and universities are not severely affected during the times of depression due too the high number of students who seek knowledge and skills. Economic opportunities disappear and the remaining option is the education system which absorbs a large number of people. However, the University of Washington registered a few number of students during this period.

During the great depression a great crisis was experienced by both the students and the University of Washington. There were many changes that were happening in the entire economy during this period. The students as well as the university had to reduce their budgets so as to accommodate the changing economic environment. Many students lacked tuition fees and the university encountered hard times to deal with low fee payments by the students. The workers at the university demanded more salaries and security for tenure. However the university had low incomes to sustain the large number of employees. Some employees were sacked while the others had their salary reduced. This created chaos and the employees sought to strike.

Labor conflicts increased due to the decreasing incomes and jobs. The university management adopted a new management strategy whereby they never listened to the suggestions of the students and employees. Enrollment had declined and the university had severe financial crisis which forced the management to adopt a new method of managing the staff and students. The demands by the students for free speech were declined and the university never allowed freedom to express oneself. The demands by the staff for academic freedom were also declined and they operated according to the orders from the management. Employees had no freedom to express their feelings about job satisfaction. Most of the employees had to abide by the new rules since the demand for jobs was very high and they risked loosing the jobs if they created conflicts with the management of the university.

The growth of the University of Washington increased during the 1920s. The enrollment had assumed an upward trend whereas the employment rate had also increased with time. At the end of World War I the enrollment was three thousand students per year. This number increased to more than 9,000 students enrollment rate in 1930. Before the great depression the University of Washington had encountered some problems. The funds of the university were few but the governor never wanted to increase the money to run the school. The university increased tuition fees so as to cater for the deficit caused by low the funds released by the government. There was a 50 percent increase in the tuition fees. In 1925 the situation became worse when Roland Hartley was elected the governor. He fired President Henry Suzzallo who had served for a long period of time. He then replaced the Board of Reagents by bringing new members. The salary and funding increases that had been proposed there before were banned. The university started to operate on a tight budget. The governor was not sympathetic about the situation. This happened before the great depression.

When the great depression came into reality in the beginning of 1930, the university was operating at a very poor condition. Most of the students terminated their education due to the hard economic situation coupled by the problem of fee increase. Students went home to assist their families obtain basic needs. Others had to drop their education because the part time jobs were no longer available. Most of the working class students relied on part time jobs and had to terminate their education since they had no money to pay their fees and upkeep.

Some students dropped out of school and became beggars. Others started stealing to survive. Others were forced to stop their studies when the members of the family who were the bread winner died. Most of the students resulted to dependence on charity bread line to survive. The enrollment rate reduced from eight thousand to almost six thousand during the peak of the depression era-1932. A great percent of the students were left at school had scholarships or had a stable income which was rare.

During 1932 the university reduced its budget further to accommodate the worsening economic situation. The state of Washington struggled to maintain its services to the people. Low tax revenues were collected. Property tax was the main source of income for the state. Most people lost their farms and homes due to poverty. The remaining owners were poor and relied on relief hence could not promptly pay property tax. Corporate tax and personal income taxes were introduced by the government to increase its revenues from tax. The governor Hartley banned the new tax system. The income tax and the property tax were voted in by a majority of the citizens. The Supreme Court of the state of Washington ruled out income tax suggesting that it was not supported by the constitution. In 1933 the property tax was terminated and nothing was placed to cater for the gap. This created a great crisis to the government and there were inadequate funds to run all the state enterprises.

In 1933 a new governor, Clarence Martin, came into power and replaced Hartley. Clarence lowered the tuition fees for the students at the University of Washington. He also reduced the admission requirements and this made more people access higher education. Clarence reduced the budget of the university and increased the funding by the government. The Board of Reagents accepted the new policies by the governor. One thousand more students registered after the implementation of the new policy. Towards the end of 1933 the number of students increased from seven thousand to eight thousand.

To act on the policy of reducing the budget that had been enforced by Clarence, the university reduced the salaries to its workers. They employees received a 40 percent reduction in their salaries towards the end of 1933. The number of teaching staff was cut by ten percent. The remaining teaching staffs received less pay and were required to increase their work load. The number of students increased and the workload for the teaching staff increased. The classes increased in population and when compared with other university, they were 70 percent larger. Strikes occurred to pressure the governor improve the situation at the university. New faculties were required to cater for the large number of students who were enrolling.
 
The students, faculty and the reagents had to protest the policies of the governor so as to achieve a better situation. They were able to convince the governor to increase the salaries for the teaching staff. He also increased the salaries for instructors due to the pressure that had been placed on him. By the end of the year the Board of Reagents planned to increase the number of instructors by a hundred during the following academic year. There were plans to increase the salaries for the teachers by fifty percent. During the following year there was an increase in the funding to the university and by the academic year 1935-36 the funds were double that of the year 1930-31. This was possible because the state restored its tax system. Education was funded from sales and business taxes. This increased the revenues of the state to cater for the higher education. Enrollment for students increased from nine thousand and above for the rest of the decade.

Changes in infrastructure
The university struggled to finance its operational activities. Public works increased its spending to the university and this created a lot of benefits. New buildings were established in the university by the end of 1935. The state had spent a lot of funds on infrastructure more than before. The new buildings that were constructed during this period were a dormitory, an infirmary, Chemistry building, Law School and smith Hall. The federal and the State government funded the construction of these infrastructures. The funds from Federal government were used to build new ball fields and athletic facilities. A new campus power plant was also built from these funds and also funded the adding of a wing to Suzzallo Library. Brick pathways which exist up-to-date were built in 1934.  Civil Works Administration built these pathways. Washington Park Arboretum was the most notable project that was established during this period. The University of Washington manages the arboretum although it is possessed by the City of Seattle.

Lee Paul Sieg was named the new president of the University in 1934. Sieg changed the curriculum and the governance of the university to fit the prevailing conditions. Academic units were reorganized. The arts and sciences were united and formed one college. Preparation for enrolling new students was made to create an efficient system.

The life of students during the depression era
During the 1920s higher education was expensive. Most working-class students could not manage the high cost. Public schools supported students even from families financially capable of supporting them. This was a culture that had been adopted by students from middle as well as upper economic classes. During this period (before the great depression) students actively involved in athletics, sports and other extra-curriculum activities. Many clubs were formed to cater for the needs of the students.

During the great depression the public institutions had no funds to support the students. This made most students to support themselves. Most students came from humble families and could not afford the extravagant life as before. The federal government introduced the National Youth administration to support the students. The unemployed youths were given relief by this agency to enable them finance their education effectively. Work study programs were established in the state. Students could work in the libraries, research firms and canteens so as to increase their incomes. Most students did work study programmes to support themselves by 1937.

Student politics changed during the 1930s and they supported socialist party. During the elections for 1932 most students in the country supported Herbert Hoover. A small percent supported Franklin Roosevelt. The socialist party had Norman Thomas as their candidate. In Seattle campus the student adopted the same trend. Hoover had a 60 response compared to 29 for Roosevelt and 12 for Norman Thomas.

After elections the students became more liberal and radical in the national politics. However, the politics never interfered with athletics and social events among the students. Student newspapers reported the events in the campus about the activities of the students as well as the political events. Students actively involved in community activities and in politics.

During the depression students at the University of Washington established Student Cooperative Association. The association provided material support to students and the community. This was done in collaboration with the Unemployed Citizens Council. After the depression the association conducted fundraising within the community and provided cloths to the unemployed students and people within the community. The students union raised protest against the overcrowded classrooms. They also protested the sacking of popular professors by the governor. After the depression the students carried peaceful movements within the campus and the community around.

Unions and academic labor
During the 1920s the instructors encountered a lot of labor problems due to the decline in the funding to the university by the federal and state governments. The instructors were underpaid and had no job security. Promotions were declined and a few people could climb their career ladder. The Instructors Association (IA) was established to overlook the labor problems that the instructors encountered. The association was able to fight for salary increment but was unable to improve the job security for the instructors. Local 401 of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) was established in 1935. This association was able to express the ideas of the faculty members to the federal government. President Sieg declined to work with AFT and wanted to negotiate with IA. The unions were able to fight for the rights of all employees. Discrimination of married females was stopped and the plight of the non-faculty employees was abolished. However, the union never lasted for long and in 1938 IA was converted into Faculty Senate.

Emergence of World War II and students activism
Antiwar movements were formed by the students to protest the emergence of war. The students organized national strikes to protest the increasing threats of national war. President Sieg never supported the strikes and invited leaders to stop the national strikes by the students. Due to the high probability of America involving in war, the university established systems to encounter their enemies during the war. The university established programmes to teach skills in canning food, navy activities, and chemical warfare. Secretive researches were conducted about military activities. Engineering departments designed ships and bombers for war. The university assisted the federal government during World War II and this brought a lot of economic prosperity to the economy. The university was expanded after the war after the federal government increased its funding. The labor problems that were encountered in the 1920s and 1930s were resolved and the university operated normally.

The 1920s saw the end of the First World War when Germany accepted the armistice and the alliance emerged victorious. Most of this victory was as a result of the advanced fighting skills of the US army led by General Pershing. The first election brought an end to the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson, who was the twenty-eighth president of the US and his liberal policies. The Americans choose President Harding who was a republican. This restored power to the conservative group for most of the twenties and thirties. Before the armistice, plans for demobilization were already in place. The US defense department had not anticipated such a quick end to the First World War and was therefore faced with the challenge of ensuring that most of these military officers were demobilized honorably with very little impact on the domestic economy. Thirty demobilization camps were set up over the US and more than 3.25 million military officers were discharged leaving a small military force for post war duties as well as domestic occupation. The US defense department however also kept a large reserve of unused weapons from the First World War for possible emergency use and peacetime efforts.

The US government had ignored the treaty of Versailles and even after the armistice had continued to fight and invade Germany until 1921 when a separate treaty was signed. The last American troops evacuated Germany in 1923. Shortly after German troops were given the armistice in the First World War, the American war department had already convinced congress on the necessity of establishing a regular American army of about five hundred thousand men. In addition, General Pershing who had led the First World War American force had already introduced the concept of training these troops in a formal military school. The American defense department therefore also suggested the implementation of a three month training system for these troops in order to allow the steady expansion of the force and to give them relevance in modern warfare. Congress however refused these requests despite the possibility of a war with Japan arguing that if such a conflict occurred it would primarily be naval and not on land. The US government therefore sorely relied on the navy as their main line of defense for the twenties and most of the thirties.

After the First World War, in the early 1920s, most of the formidable international powers formed an alliance in order to provide a strong international security system. The US congress had decided not to join this League of Nations leaving them with the need to establish a strong military force. As a result of a lot of accumulated distrust on international alliances, the American government focused on developing an army sorely for the protection of their domestic interests as opposed to international security. The result was therefore a small mobilization army which continued to reduce as international threats seemed to recede. This relatively small army consisting of nineteen thousand officers and two hundred thousand enlisted men relied on the materials left over after the 1918 armistice. Congress therefore, was not pushed for any further funding in the 1920s.

In the 1920s the US army was therefore only involved in peacekeeping missions and not active combat. In 1920, the American regular army units were dispatched to guard the Mexican boarder due to the various constant political revolutions taking place. In 1921, the regular army also supplied troops to settle the numerous land disputes which were emerging within America. In the 1920s and 1930s, the only American force stationed on foreign land was a garrison of one thousand soldiers which was stationed at Tientsin, China from 1912 to 1938 and one thousand officers stationed in the Philippines for five months in 1932.
The national defense act which was passed by congress in June 4, 1920 governed both the regulation and the organization of the American army until 1950. This act rejected the need to expand the army as argued previously by Calhoun and instead advocated splitting the army into three branches. This comprised of the standing regular force, an organized reserve force and the National Guard. These three forces were to be regulated during the peacetimes and would be expected to contribute their share of officers incase of any war. This act relied heavily on the ability of the government to recruit and rely on citizen soldiers incase of any war emergencies. However the act also gave precedence to the importance of training the National Guard and the reserved forces during the peacetimes and this duty was given to the regular force. Thirty one service schools were set up to cater for the training of these officers. There was an overall increased emphasis on the importance of training armies internationally.

Three new branches were formed under this act. These included the air service branch, the chemical warfare branch and the finance department. The responsibility of the planning, supervising and preparing for war was given to the war department under this act. In 1921 General Pershing who had led the troops of the First World War, became the chief of staff and reorganized all the military personnel into five divisions as he had during combat. These divisions were personnel, intelligence, training and operations, supplying and the new division of planning and preparation for war. This was meant to bring an improved level of efficacy into the American army and prevent the disorganization crisis which had taken place at the battle of Meuse Argonne where several troops went without communication, food and water for days. In 1926 a new division, the air corps were established.

The aviation warfare maintained its vitality even in the face of the tank almost becoming obsolete due to increased political conservatism. The army was split into two based on the use of airplane warfare. One camp advocated for the use of airplanes to that of offering fire support and reconnaissance to ground tank troops while the other camp led by Brig. Gen. William Mitchell advocated for the use of airplanes for strategic bombing. In 1921 and 1923 Brig. Gen. William Mitchell had used airplanes in several tests against obsolete warships to demonstrate their potential in strategic bombing. Despite the decision to only use airplanes for reconnaissance and fire support, William Mitchell avidly continued expressing his distaste with the decision his superiors and congress had taken leading to his demotion to the rank of colonel in 1925. This was followed by a court martial the following year for insubordination and an eventual resignation. This debate however continued into the Second World War until 1940 when Gen. Frank Andrew purchased the B17 bomber.

General MacArthur, who was the chief of staff, in the thirties, recommended a reorganization of the forces and an increase n the size leading to expansion changes between 1930 and 1935. He also led to a more realistic organization of the country incase of a war. His recommendations highlighted the need for strategic mobility. MacArthur insisted on the need to use the armys resources to replace the means of transport from horses to a smaller but more favorable means of transport. The inception of a motorized means of transport allowed the army to provide faster and more efficient systems of transport to replace the horses which had been their main means of transport since the cavalry.

The army also underwent reformation in organization allowing the creation of new divisions in order to allow control over the training of larger air and ground forces. During this interwar period, the army focused its limited resources on maintaining personnel strength and training its forces as opposed to acquiring new equipment. Small budgets assigned by congress in the light of the great depression led to the crippling of various army arsenals and army laboratories. Despite these hurdles, the army used the existing resources to build on the technological advances of the First World War. The industrial period in the 1920s and 1930s brought a revolution in technology bringing along various technological advances for the army.

Four army headquarters and a general headquarters were created between 1932 and 1935 allowing the National Guard and the reserve forces to train together with the navy. In 1935, congress accepted the need to increase the size of the army and ordered the regular army to increase its capacity to one hundred and sixty five thousand troops. This was followed by an increase in combat equipment which had now become obsolete against any modern equipment and by 1938 the regular army had achieved both improved strength and readiness and were ready for any emergency. With increased congressional support, infantry tanks were mechanically developed to support attacks and Calvary tanks were developed more adequately to support any war missions. The need for increased mobility was emphasized in the development of the tanks.

In conclusion, the American army in the 1920s and 1930s was faced with inadequate personnel and equipment as a result of low funding and budget cuts. America refused to form the great alliance due to unresolved conflicts from international alliances choosing instead to form a small army capable of sorely protecting their national interests. The American army focused on discharging most of the officers who had served in the First World War and only retained a small force for occupation and domestic affairs. The 20s were relatively peaceful and the only officers on foreign soil were one thousand privates who had earlier on been deployed to china and later in 1932, one thousand more were deployed to Philippines. Training of officers became an integral issue in developing a formidable force and military training schools were set up. The regular army was mandated with the task of training the rest of the troops. During this time, there was a conflict on the use of airplanes in the war. While the army superiors agreed that they would only be used for providing fire support and reconnaissance to ground troops, others including general Mitchell were of the opinion that these planes should be used for strategic bombing and air raids. This led to his eventual demotion and resignation. However, the debate did not end and in 1940 in the wake of the Second World War, General Frank Andrew purchased the first B17 bomber amidst a lot of protests. General MacArthur who was the chief of staff in the 1930s led congress to make changes in the administration, organization and funding of the army. He proposed and enacted a larger army force which had better strategic mobility and in addition focused on attaining high quality equipment from the obsolete reservoirs retained after the First World War. By 1939, the American army was therefore adequately prepared for the Second World War.